Term
| Why are phylogenetic trees only a hypothesis? |
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Definition
| they are being revised over and over again. new fossil finds can change the tree |
|
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Term
| compare and contrast taxonomy (classification)and systematics (phylogeny) |
|
Definition
taxonomy: how organisms are classified and named
systematics: evolutionary relationships
similarities: binomial naming system; hierarchical categorization |
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Term
| are taxonomy and systematics always in agreement? why or why not? |
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Definition
| most of the time they are, but not always perfectly. they go hand-in-hand |
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Term
| explain the basic organizational framework used to classify all living organisms. |
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Definition
| root, branches, nodes (common ancestors), sister taxa, tips |
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Term
| 8 majoy levels of classification |
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Definition
| DKPCOFGS: domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species |
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Term
| define: node, branch, common ancestors, species, sister taxa, roots, and clades |
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Definition
node: common ancestor
branch: from node to node, node to species
species: tips of the tree
sister taxa: shared ancestor and closest living family
roots: early common ancestor
clade: common ancestor and all living descendants |
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Term
| why is topology and branch length useful? |
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Definition
topology: branching pattern; shows where the nodes are and who is closely related to who
branch length: usually indicates time, but not always |
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Term
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Definition
| can cut off of the tree in one cut, clade |
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Term
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Definition
| contains common ancestor and MOST descendants |
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Term
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Definition
| taxa with different ancestors |
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Term
| hypothesized relationship between clades and species |
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Definition
| clades are the ancestors and all living descendants while species are the living descendants |
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Term
| different types of data that are used to build phylogenetic trees |
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Definition
| homoplasy, homology, DNA sequence, morphological |
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Term
| example of homology and homoplasy and which would be useful in building a phylogenetic tree? |
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Definition
homology: all birds have feathers because their ancestors did
homoplasy: analogous structures; birds and bats have wings because evolution favored flying. homology would be useful. |
|
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Term
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Definition
| distant shared ancestral characteristic; backbones in many different species |
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Term
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Definition
| shared derived characteristic that is unique to a clade |
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Term
| more useful for building trees: symplesiomorphies or synapomorphies |
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Definition
|
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Term
| to discriminate phylogenetic trees with outgroup comparisons and parsimony |
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Definition
outgroup comparisons: distinguish between ancestral and derived characteristics
parsimony: simplest answer should be correct |
|
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Term
| how can phylogenetic trees be used to answer evolutionary questions |
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Definition
| keeps biodiversity organized and classified, allows for conception of the totality of evolutionary history, and helps answer how evolutionary changes arose |
|
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Term
| molecular clocks: how are the constructed and used |
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Definition
| constructed by calibrating DNA change with time to calculate rate of genetic change. used to estimate absolute age of evolutionary change |
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Term
| problems with molecular clocks |
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Definition
| not all DNA sequences change at a constant rate, and extending beyond fossil records is risky |
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Term
| is archaea more related to bacteria, or eukarya? |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| three kingdoms: animal, vegetable, mineral. gods plan. |
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Term
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Definition
| first to build tree for all living organisms. plants, animals, protists |
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Term
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Definition
| proposed five kingdom system: monera, protists, fungi, animals, plants |
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Term
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Definition
| classifed using molecules. three domains: bacteria, eukarya, archaea (still used today) |
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Term
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Definition
| diverse metabolic and reproductive abilities, live anywhere, gets food by sun, inorganic and organic molecules |
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Term
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Definition
| proteobacteria (mitochondria), gram-positive, cynobacteria (chloroplasts), spirochetes |
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Term
| extremophiles and the different environments |
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Definition
adapted to life in extreme environments.
halophiles - highly saline environment
thermophiles - very hot environments
methanogens - little or no oxygen in environment |
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Term
| how does genetic variation arise in prokaryotes |
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Definition
| rapid reproduction, genetic recombination (transformation - uptake of naked DNA; transduction - viruses carried from host to host; conjunction - genetic material between bacteria through a sex pillus |
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Term
| origin of eukaryotic cells |
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Definition
|
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Term
| origin of multicellularity |
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Definition
|
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Term
| major diversification of multicellular eukaryotes |
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Definition
|
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Term
| what is the endosymbiosis theory? |
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Definition
| mitochondria and chloroplasts were formerly small prokaryotes living within larger host cells which led to becoming the same organism as the host |
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Term
| evidence for endosymbiosis |
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Definition
| similar membrane structure and function as bacteria; have their own circular DNA; have ribosomes to translate DNA to proteins; genes more similar to bacteria than eukaryotes |
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Term
| main characteristics of protists |
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Definition
| not a monophyletic group; general term for eukarya that are not animals, plants, or fungi;most are unicellular, but can live in colonies; very metabolically diverse - can be animal-like, fungi-like, or plant-like |
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Term
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Definition
| flagellated mitochondria; intestinal parasite that causes abdominal pain and diarrhea |
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Term
|
Definition
| sleeping sickness; flagellated mitochondria; blood pathogen causes coma |
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Term
|
Definition
| twin flagella; cellulose plates, cause of red or illuminated tides |
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Term
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Definition
| malaria; two hosts for complex life cycle; destroys red blood cells |
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Term
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Definition
| cell wall is silica; freshwater and marine; helps with the earth's carbon cycle |
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Term
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Definition
| kelp, seaweed; marine, not placed in group with red and green algae |
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Term
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Definition
| most multicellular; coral; mostly marine; red because of photosynthetic pigments |
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Term
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Definition
| most multicellular; chloroplasts; chlorophytes; charophytes (closest relative to land plants) |
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Term
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Definition
| closely related to animals and fungi; some are supercells (single cytoplasm contains many nuclei); previously thought to be fungi |
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Term
| alternation of generations |
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Definition
| single cell undergoes mitosis, turns into a diploid cell, undergoes meiosis, turns into gamete (single cell) |
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Term
| which group of algae are closely related to land plants? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| what phylogenetic group includes red algae, green algae, charophytes, and land plants? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the sister group of land plants and what evidence is there to support the transition to land |
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Definition
| charophytes. molecular and morphological evidence |
|
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Term
| major challenges of plants colonizing land |
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Definition
| relative scarcity of water; lack of structural support; herbivores (eventually) |
|
|
Term
| advantages for plants living on land |
|
Definition
| abundant CO2; abundant light; nutrients more plentiful; no herbivores initially |
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Term
| four synapomorphies for land plants |
|
Definition
1. alternation of generations and multicellular embryos dependent on maternal plant
2. haploid spores produced in sporangia resist desiccation
3. multicellular gametangia (structure enclosing gametes)
4. apical meristem (localized regions of cell division that allow roots and shoots to penetrate soil and to extend into the air) |
|
|
Term
| date of colonization of land by plants |
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Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| date of origin of vascular plants |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| date of origin of seed plants |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| differ from other plants because: gametophyte is the dominant generation, the sporophyte reduced and dependent on gametophyte. non-woody; needs water for reproduction, lack of vascular tissue limits size; mosses |
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Term
|
Definition
| gametophyte is reduced but independent and photosynthetic; moist environments; ferns |
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Term
|
Definition
| sporophyte dominant with tiny gametophytes inside male and female cones; gametophytes protected and nutritionally supported by sporophyte; naked seeds exposed on modified leaves that form cones; pine trees |
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Term
|
Definition
| sporophyte dominant with tiny gametophyte inside male anthers and female ovaries on a flower; gametophytes protected and nutritionally supported by sporophyte; flowers |
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Term
| evolution of vascular tissue in plants |
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Definition
| water-conducting cells xylem and phloem (contain lignin - a rigid polymer); roots absorb water and nutrients and acts as an anchor; leaves increase surface area of plant body for photosynthesis |
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Term
| describe seeds, pollen, and flowers |
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Definition
seeds: an embryo plus food supply in a protective coat
pollen: male gametophyte within sporophyte-derived wall |
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Term
| advantage of having seeds |
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Definition
| seeds are detachable, mobile, capable of prolonged dormancy and withstanding periods of harsh physical conditions |
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Term
| main characteristics of fungi |
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Definition
| both unicellular and multicellular; fungal cell walls contain chitin, a nitrogen-rich polysaccharide; multicellular fungi are primarily composed of hyphae; sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction |
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Term
| common ancestor of animals and fungi; major feature uniting this group |
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Definition
| opisthokonts; unicellular |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| may be paraphyletic; unicellular and multicellular forms; aquatic and soil-dwelling decomposers, parasites, and mutualists |
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Term
|
Definition
| form molds that grow on breads and fruits; others parasitic or commensal symbionts or animals |
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Term
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Definition
| recently recognized monophyletic group; nearly all are arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi; branched hyphae push into plant cells and provide host plant with minerals and nutrients |
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Term
|
Definition
| produce spores in saclike asci during sexual reproduction; marine, terrestrial, and aquatic species; diverse habits: parasites, partners in lichens, free-living, ectomycorrhizal, endophytic |
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Term
|
Definition
| shelf fungus, mushrooms, puff balls; some ectomycorrhizal; others important plant pests (rusts and smuts); important decomposers of wood; capable of breaking down lignin |
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Term
| benefits to each partner in mycorrhizal fungi-plant mutualisms |
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Definition
| enhance plant growth in nutrient-poor soils; fungi obtain carbon from the plants |
|
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Term
| ectomycorrhizal vs. endomycorrhizal fungi |
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Definition
ectomycorrhizal: surrounds roots of plants; form partnerships with woody trees and shrubs like pines, oaks, birches
endomycorrhizal: extend into root cells, where they form arbuscules; penetrate cell walls, but not plasma membrane; form partnerships with both woody and non-woody plants |
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Term
| larger phylogenetic group that includes animals and fungi |
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Definition
|
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Term
| sister group of animals and the features shared |
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Definition
| choanoflagellates; molecular homologies, collar cells in animals and unicellular choanoflagellates resemble one another |
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Term
| major synapomorphies in animals |
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Definition
| chemoheterotrophs that ingest living or non-living organic matter and internally digest it with enzymes; multicellular eukaryotes that lack cell walls: cells supported by structural proteins and skeletons; most reproduce sexually |
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Term
| current status of animal phylogeny and major features common to phylogenetic trees based on morphological data and molecular data |
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Definition
| not fully resolved; molecular and morphological data provide divergent views of diversificatoin; animals are monophyletic; sponges are basal; eumetazoans have true tissues; most animals belong to bilateria; chordates fall within the deuterostomia |
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Term
| date of first animal fossils (ediacaran biota) |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| date of permian extinction |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| date of cretaceous extinction |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| paleozoic era: phyla and extinction |
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Definition
| arthopods colonize land; vertebrates colonize land; permian extinction |
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Term
| mesozoic era: phyla and extinction |
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Definition
| first coral reefs; dinosaurs and insects diverge; first mammals; cretaceous mass extinction |
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Term
|
Definition
| rise of large mammalian herbivores and predators; further diversification of insects and angiosperms; diversification of birds; hominids evolve |
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Term
|
Definition
| asymmetric, sedentary, suspension feeders without true tissue; all aquatic, mostly marine |
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Term
|
Definition
| radially symmetric, diploblastic (have true tissue), sessile or mobile aquatic carnivores (mostly marine); jellyfish, corals, hydras, sea anemones |
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Term
|
Definition
| marine, freshwater, terrestrial environments; free living forms, called flatworms, are predators and scavengers; parasitic forms, about half of the diversity in this group are called flukes and tapeworms; flukes and tapeworms have complex life cycles with intermediate hosts |
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Term
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Definition
| marine, freshwater, terrestrial environments, some groups confined to the marine realm; most secrete shells made of calcium carbonate; grazers, suspension feeders, predators |
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Term
|
Definition
| segmented worms that occupy marine, freshwater, and terrestrial environments; polychaetes are marine predators and suspension feeders; oligochaetes include eearthworms (consume soil) and leeches (predatory and parasitic) |
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Term
|
Definition
| include both free-living and parasitic forms, some pathogenic; occur in aquatic and terrestrial environments; many soil dwelling decomposers; humans maladies cause by nemotodes: trichinosis, filariasis, river blindness; many plant parasites as well |
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Term
|
Definition
| crustaceans, insects, spiders, mites, scorpians, horseshoe crabs, sea spiders, trilobites (extinct); all anthropods have an exoskeleton composed of chitin, jointed appendages, and segmented bodies; loss and fusion of segments occur throughout anthropod fossil record; limbs also become increasingly specialized for particular functoins |
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Term
|
Definition
| sea stars, sea cucumbers, urchins and sand dollars, and sea lilies; bilaterally symmetrical larvae, a five-part adult body plan, and a water vascular system; exclusively marine; grazers, suspension feeders, predators |
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Term
| the four synapomorphies for chordates |
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Definition
1. notochord: flexible rod providing skeletal support
2. dorsal, hollow nerve cord
3. pharyngeal slits: grooves along side of pharynx; supension feeding (invertebrate chordates), gas exchange
4. muscular post-anal tail |
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Term
|
Definition
| backbone composed of vertebrae, molecular homologies |
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Term
|
Definition
| jaws (hinged structures that assist in gripping and eating food), enlarged forebrain (smell, vision), and molecular homologies; fossils 450 MYA - diversification due to increased predation success |
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Term
|
Definition
| sharks, rays, ratfish; predominantly cartilage skeleton |
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Term
|
Definition
| ray-finned fish, lobe-finned fish; bony (ossified) skeleton of calcium phosphate |
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|
Term
| challenges of colonizing land and adaptations to cope with these challenges |
|
Definition
challenges: gravity, desiccation, respiration
adaptations: development of limbs with digits |
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Term
| synapomorphies of amniotes and when they diverged |
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Definition
| tetrapods; amniotic egg - reduced dependence on water for reproduction; egg shells - slows dehydration; rib cage ventilation - increased efficiency; first amniotes ~350MYA |
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Term
| synapomorphies of mammals |
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Definition
| hair (insulation); mammary glands (produce calorie-rich milk which is fed to young); differential teeth (specialized to diet) |
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Term
|
Definition
| lay eggs, endemic to australia and new guinea; e.g. platypus, echidna |
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Term
|
Definition
| young develop in pouch; e.g. kangaroo, koala |
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Term
|
Definition
| placental; young fully develop in uterus; giraffes, humans |
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Term
| what did the earliest eutherian look like? data used by scientists to construct hypothetical organism |
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Definition
| like a rat; combination of DNA and anatomical traits |
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Term
| four characteristics found in all primates |
|
Definition
1. hands and feet adapted for grasping
2. flat nails on digits
3. forward-directed eyes (binocular vision = depth perception)
4. large brain and short jaws (flat faces) |
|
|
Term
| monkeys vs. apes; species of ape most closely related to humans |
|
Definition
monkeys: tails
apes: long arms, short legs; no tai; large brain; less time in the trees
chimps and bonobos most closely related to humans |
|
|
Term
| 3 key features that separate humans from other apes |
|
Definition
1. bipedal
2. larger brain
3. reduced jawbones and muscles, shorter digestive tract |
|
|
Term
| sahelanthropus: anatomical features, where they lived, order |
|
Definition
| oldest know human; skeleton indicates increased bipedalism; small body size and brain |
|
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Term
| ardipithecus ramidus: anatomical features, where they lived, order |
|
Definition
| ethiopia; intermediate form of upright walking; small body size and brain; less pronounced canine teeth; second oldest |
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Term
| gracile australopithecus: anatomical features, where they lived, order |
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Definition
| Lucy; ethiopia; human-like: hands and feet, bipedal; chimp-like: long arms, small brains; skull/jaw for chewing soft food; third oldest |
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Term
| robust australopithecus: anatomical features, where they lived, order |
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Definition
| larger and more robust that gracile australopithecus; sturdy skull, jaws, and teeth for chewing tough food; fourth oldest |
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Term
| homo habilis: anatomical features, where they lived, order |
|
Definition
| extensive tool use; opposable thumb; fifth oldest |
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Term
| homo erectus: anatomical features, where they lived, order |
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Definition
| reduced size difference between sexes; first to migrate out of africa; sixth oldest |
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Term
| homo heidelbergensis: anatomical features, where they lived, order |
|
Definition
| brain nearly as large as modern humans; advanced tools and behavior; moved out of africa into europe and china; common ancestor of homo sapiens and homo neanderthalensis; seventh oldest |
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|
Term
| homo neanderthalensis: anatomical features, where they lived, order |
|
Definition
| closest extinct relative to homo sapiens; very homo sapiens-like; brain as big as modern homo sapiens; skeleton similar, but shorter; differences: forward-projecting face; originated in europe; interbreeding with homo sapiens; eighth oldest |
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|
Term
| DNA evidence for neanderthals and homo sapiens interbreeding? |
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Definition
| some neanderthal alleles were more similar to european and asian homo sapiens alleles than they were to african homo sapiens alleles; europeans and asians share 1-4% of their DNA with neandertals, africans do not share any DNA with neandertals |
|
|
Term
| three major migrations of homo sapiens out of africa |
|
Definition
1. moving west into europe (interbreed with neandertals)
2. moving southeast into asia and australia (interbreed with other hominin species)
3. moving northeast into asia and later to the americas |
|
|
Term
| misconceptions about humans evolution |
|
Definition
1. humans evolved from chimps (we are the only humans that ever existed
2. we are the pinnacle of a linear evolution of humans (bunch of branches, not just one line, many lines everywhere) |
|
|
Term
| why sun drives global climate patterns; why poles are cold, tropics are hot and what leads to seasonal variation in climate |
|
Definition
| Temperature differences result from how the angle of the sun relative to the Earth’s surface changes with latitude; earth's tilt leads to seasonal variation |
|
|
Term
| gulf stream ocean currents |
|
Definition
| warm water moves towards temperature latitudes along eastern coast |
|
|
Term
| southern california bight ocean current |
|
Definition
| warm water from the southern california counter current moves north, cold water from the california curent moves south; a lot of marine diversity |
|
|
Term
| two major regional effects on climate and how these features give rise to regional climate patterns |
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Definition
1. topography: within climatic zones, local topography influences rainfall (mountains can make a state wet on one side and dry on the other)
2. continental and maritime climates: water takes longer to warm up, but stays warmer longer, land does the opposite (more extreme weather inland |
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|
Term
| biomes (aquatic and terrestrial); what two factors define boundaries of terrestrial biomes |
|
Definition
biomes: a major type of biological assemblage defined by characteristics of the vegetation (terrestrial biomes) or environment (aquatic biomes)
terrestrial biome two factors:
1. average temperature
2. annual rainfall |
|
|
Term
| climate change and how it will affect biomes; tools scientists use to predict impacts of climate change |
|
Definition
| any change in earth's climate will affect biomes; simulation studies based on computer models, long term observational studies, historical studies, experiments |
|
|
Term
| Mediterranean-type ecosystems: physical features that define, 5 major regions in the world where these ecosystems are found |
|
Definition
occur in regions with cool wet winters and warm dry summers, fire often important; diverse but threatened
1. california and northern baja
2. Mediterranean basin
3. central chile
4. western cape, south africa
5. southwest and south australia |
|
|
Term
| biodiversity of mediterranean-type ecosystems |
|
Definition
| contain huge percentage of named vascular plants; many endemic species |
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