only covalent

if it has covalent and ionic you call it a compound

if 1-4 valence electrons, the # of valence electrons = # of bonds it will make

if 5 or more valence electrons, bonds = 8 - # of valence electrons

same molecular formula but connectivity of atoms is different

ethanol and dimethyl ether

Be, B, P, and S

dimethylsulfoxide DMSO(10 e around S), sulfiric acid H₂SO₄(12 e around S), and alendronic acid(10 e around P)

1. when a lone pair is located on an atom directly bonded to a mutliple bond. 

2. when an atom bearing a (+) charge is bonded to either a multiple bond or an atom with a lone pair.

They can move to a lower energy and become more stable

nature goes from high energy to low energy

decreases across a row and increases down a column

decreases when the number of electrons between nuclei increases

decreases as percent s-character increases

the shorter the bond, the stronger the bond

sigma bonds are generally stronger than pi bonds

1. arrange the atoms with H's on the periphery,
2. count valence electrons(give more or less for charge)
3. arrange electrons around the atoms, give H's 2 and fill the octets of the others
4. assign formal charges

Trigonal pyramidal (107 degrees)

bent (105 degrees)

find the angle

When you form bonds energy is released

when a bond is broken you have to put energy in

Less than .5 electro negativity difference

Greater than 2 is ionic

CH CC are non polar 

meet octect

draw partial charges for hyrbid resonance

only move electrons

Must be able to form a bond to a proton. Must contain an available electron pair. This includes lone pairs or electron pairs in pi bonds

B^._.

The product formed when the acid loses the proton so A^..-

How do you determine the strength of an acid?

Ka

pKa

the more readily it donates a proton the stronger

if it's conjugate base is really stable

if the Ka (products/acid) is high the acid is strong

if the pKa is is low the acid is strong (-logK_a)

if you have Ka you take the -log of the Ka

pKa = -logKa

if you have pKa then you take the antilog of (-) the pKa

so if pKa = 3.2 the Ka = 10^-3.2 = 6.3*10^-4 

element effects

inductive effects

resonance effects

hybridization effects

inverse

it will have a really weak conjugate base

HCl pKa=-7

Cl^- pKa = really high

HCl  -7    Cl-

CH₃COO-H  4.8   CH₃COO-

HO-H  15.7   OH-

CH₃CH₂O-H  16   CH₃CH₂O-

ethyne  25   HC-triple-C-

H-H  35  H-

H₂N-H  38  H₂N-

CH₂-double-CH_{2  44}  CH₂-double-CH-

CH₃-H  50  CH₃-

what are the two common inorganic and organic acids used in reactions?

draw them

HCl, H₂SO₄

Acetic acid, TsOH (p-toluenesulfonic acid, a solid) - benzene ring with a methyl and SO₃H off opposite ends

negatively charged oxygen bases hydroxide (OH^-) and its organic derivatives

negatively charged Nitrogen bases: -NH₂ amide and its organic derivatives

 Hydride (H^-)

the conjugate acids of these strong bases are usually > 12 pKa

strong bases have a net negative charge, but not all negative charges are strong bases

Look at the elemental affects first. What atom is the h or proton bonded to?

then look at inductive, resonance, and hybrid

only london dispersion or van der Waals forces

momentary changes in electron density in the molecule

measure of how electron cloud responds to changes in the electronic environment.

larger molecules like Iodine have more loosely held valence electrons and are more polarizable than smaller like F

larger molecules have stronger intermolecular interactions

surface area (long chains are stronger than bulky)

polarizability (molecules containing larger atoms are stronger)

What is stronger acetic acid or propanol?

why?

they contain B-carotene which our body turns into Vitamin A. Vitamin A is an essential component of the vision receptors in our eyes. Helps with night vision too.

not soluble in water, stored in fat cells, particularly the liver

citrus fruits, strawberries, tomatoes, and sweet potatoes

Vitamin C is water soluble because of the many Oxygens

not proven to prevent diseases 

it has a polar head and non polar tail. When combined with water, the nonpolar tails group in the middle and the polar heads stay on the outside and interact with water. 

The nonpolar dirt and grease can be dissolved into the nonpolar micelles of soap. Then they carry it down the drain.

even #'s usually contain C H O odd #'s usually contain N

if it has and odd # of N the weight will be odd, if it contains an even # of N the weight will be even

when the molecular ion consists of 2 peaks (M and M+2) in a 3:1 ratio

Cl isotopes are 35 and 37 in a 3:1 ratio

when the molecular ion consists of 2 peaks (M and M+2) in a 1:1 ratio

Br isotopes are 79 and 81 in a 1:1 ratio

radiant energy having dual properties of both waves and particles

the particles of electromagnetic radiation are called photons each having a discrete amount of energy called a quantum.

it can also be characterized by its wavelength and frequency

wavelength = distance from 1 point on a wave to the same point on the adjacent wave.

frequency = number of waves passing a point per second cycles/second = Hz

Bonds where the dipole moment doesn't change in vibration like a C-triple-C bond

they have to be perfectly symmetrical 

C-X

C-O

CCO epoxide

Anti

when you put a magnet around it the parallel spin flip

what are the two variables that characterize NMR?

what are their relationships?

B_o = the applied magnetic field T tesla

the frequency "v" of radiation used for resonance Hz or megahertx MHz

the stronger the magnetic field, the larger the energy difference between the two nuclear spin states, and the higher the v needed for resonance

the number of signals in a spectrum gives the number of different types of carbon atoms in the molecule

because signals are not split, the number of signals equals the number of lines

a methylene group

a homologous series is a group of compounds that differ by only a CH₂ group

12 kJ/mol

4 kJ/mole  per each eclipsed C-H bond

how much is a H-CH₃ interaction?

how much is a CH₃-CH₃ interaction?

gauche CH₃ groups?

6 kJ/mol or 1.4 kcal/mol

11 kJ/mol or 2.6 kcal/mol

3.8 kJ/mol or .9 kcal/mol

Cyclopropane

115 kJ/mol

they have bent or banana bonds

the chair forms are 30 kJ/mol more stable than the boats

the boat conformation has steric hinderance between the flagpole hydrogens

the rest of the H's have eclipsed conformations causing torsional strain

it will go to the down axial

a substituent always stays on the same side of the ring

bond strength - stronger bonds vibrate at higher frequency

atom mass - bonds with lighter atoms vibrate at higher frequency so they absorb at higher wave number

so H and triple bonds tend to the left

the higher the percent s character, the stronger the bond and the higher the wave number of absorbtion

a proton donor, or an unfilled valence shell of electrons

a BA is always a LA but the reverse isn't true

H₂O

molecular is the actual shape of the molecule - bent

electron is just the total number of groups - tetrahedral

1) meet octet

2) most covalent bonds

3) less separation of charges

4) negative charges on most electronegative atoms

ordinary light consists of electromagnetic waves that oscillate in all planes perpendicular to the direction in which the light travels. Passing light through a polarizer allows light in only one plane to come through.

polarized light has an electric vector that oscillates in a single plane

α / (l * c) 

a = observed rotation

l = length of sample tube (dm)

c = concentration g/mL

Tells you how much one enantiomeric is present in excess of the racemic mixture

ee = % of one enantiomeric - % of the other enantiomericenantiomeric

or   ( a of mixture/a of pure enantiom) * 100

a reaction in which an atom or a group of atoms is replaced by another atom or group of atoms.

they invovle sigma bonds: one sigma bond is broken and another is formed at the same carbon

most common occur when the atom being replaced is H or a heteroatom that is more electronegative than carbon

when elements of the starting material are "lost" and a pi bond is formed

two sigma bonds are broken and a pi bond is formed between adjacent atoms

most common is when the starting is H and heteroatom more electronegative than carbon. (H and Br) 

elements are added to a starting material

a pi bond is broken and 2 sigma bonds are formed

addition and elimination reactions are exactly opposite

a detailed description of how bonds are broken and formed as a starting material is converted to a product

homolytic equally divides the electrons

heterolytic unequally divides the electrons - the electrons normally end up on the more electronegative atom

both require energy

homo generates uncharged reactive intermediates with unpaired electrons

hetero generates charged intermediates

the energy needed to homolytically cleave a covalent bond

make two radicals

delta H

the trend is the bond strength decreases with size because the electrons are farther from the nucleus

negative delta H = exothermic (formed bonds are stronger)

positive delta H = endothermic (bonds in reactants are stronger)

they energy difference between the reactants and transition state

the energy barrier that must be exceeded for reactants to be converted to products

the higher the concentration, the faster the rate, increasing concentration increases the number of collisions between reaction molecules with in turn increases the rate

the higher the temp, the faster the rate, average kinetic energy increases(which is the energy used for bond cleavage)

generally 10 degree C increase doubles the reaction rate

concentration and temperatures

delta G, H, and K_eq do not determine rate of reaction just the direction of the equilibrium

under usual conditions, an OH proton does not split the NMR signal of adjacent protons

the signal due to an OH proton is not split by adjacent protons

the more R groups or substitutions you have the more it goes towards Sn1

methyl and 1 degree will do Sn2 only

3 degree will do Sn1 only

2 degree will do both

the better leaving group is the weaker base

leaving group ability increases to the right and down the periodic table

F is not a good leaving group

generally the stronger the base the stronger the Nu

in polar protic solvents, nucleophilicity increases with increasing size of an anion(opposite of basicity)

steric hindrance decreases nucleophilicity without decreasing basicity.

protic can intermolecular H bond.

it can solvate or hold up the anion(however the bigger the anion the less it can hold it up or solvate it)

relates rate to stability

the transition state of a reaction resembles the structure of the  species (reactant or product) to which it is closer in energy. In endothermic reactions, the transition state is closer in energy to the products. In exothermic reactions, the reaction state is closer in energy to the reactants.

endothermic - the more stable product forms faster

exothermic -  the more stable product may or may not form faster because E_a is similar for both products

doesn't matter for SN1 because it is not in the rate equation

strong Nu present in high concentrations favor Sn2 reactions

weak Nu favor Sn1 reactions by decreasing the rate of any competing Sn2 reaction

the most common Nu in Sn2 bear a net negative charge. The most common Nu in Sn1 reactions are weak Nu such as H2O and ROH

the better the leaving group the faster both reactions because it is in both rate equations

the weaker base is the faster leaving group

polar protic solvents are especially good for Sn1 reactions

polar aprotic are good for Sn2 reactions

protic solvates both the cat and anion for SN1 which is needed

aprotic dont sovlate anions well, it allows the nucleophile to be stronger for Sn2 because their is no + charge stablizing them.

Resonance and hyperconjugation

1. Look at substitution first
2. Nucleophile strength (favors sn2 or dis favors sn2, it doesn't favor sn1 per say, nu isn't in the rate of sn1
3. solvent 
4. Leaving groups increase rate but doesn't favor one or the other

True because it's not very polarizable

as R groups increase they are more stable (increasing the number of electron-donating R groups on a carbon atom able to accept electron density makes the alkene more stable) sp² carbons are able to accept electron density

trans are generally more stable than cis

Base - rate increases as strength of base increases (DBN, DBU, OH^-, OR^-)

Leaving Group - better leaving group is faster

Solvent - polar aprotic solvents increase rate

Substitution - increased substitution increases rate because it stablizes double bond in transition state

in SN1 the nucleophile attacks the carbocation

In E1 the base attacks the proton and forms a double bond

they often yield a mixture so they are less helpful than E2

the strength of the base, the strong base will go E2 the weaker base E1

E1 does not occur with RX 1 degree the carbocation is two unstable

E2 will do 1,2, or 3 substituted but it does 3 the fastest

-good nucleophiles that are weak bases favor substitution over elimination

-bulky nonnucleophilic bases favor elimination over substitution.