• Communities are divided into distinct bands, or zones, at characteristic heights in the intertidal
• Species are not randomly distributed throughout the intertidal zone, but rather are arranged within realtively narrow vertical ranges

• Often set the UPPER LIMIT to species distributions

• Often set LOWER LIMIT to species distributions
• Factors

1. Competiton for Space (space on rocks to attach to)
2. Predation

• Disturbance maximizes species diversity by periodically removing competitively dominant species and allowing less competitive species to reestablish themselves
• Too much disturbance keeps the rock bare with few species. Too little disturbance allows the dominant competitor for space to take over and form a monoculture (single species)

Most corals live within this boundary

1. A new island forms and a fringing reef develops in shallow sunlit waters close to shore of the island
2. the island slowly sinks with age and the coral rises upward, eventually forming a barrier reef
3. The island is eventually submerged and all that is left is the reef, referred to now as the coral atoll

• When corals expel their symbiotic zooxanthellae algae due to envinronmental stress such as unusually warm water
• Corals can recover if it is short term (a couple of weeks) but they die if its extreme or prolonged

• Corals are extremely sensitive to rises in sea temperature
• Just 1C rise in normal sea temperature for a few weeks will result in coral bleaching

• Lived around 53 million years ago
• Special ear bone feature is diagnostic for cetaceans and is found in no other species

More dangerous: killer whale or baleen whale?

1. Summer Feeding at high latitudes and long day length, lots of biological activity
2. Winter Calving at low latitudes--usually warm, but low or no food

• Odontocetes (toothed) whales do NOT make the long, low-frequency sounds known as the whale song
• Mysticetes (baleen) whales DO make the long, low-frequency sounds known as the whale song

Whale Vocalization Purposes

1. Primarily used in sexual selection
2. Simpler sounds of other whales have a year round use (possibly navigation)

Noise Pollution

1. Acoustic Habitat is no different than spatial habitat and must be preserved
2. Noise Pollution is every bit as destructive as other forms of more familiar marine pollution (oil, nitrogen, plastic)

• Claims its whaling is for "scientific purposes"
• 1,000 Minke (non-endangered) whales per year
• 50 Fin (endangered) per year
• 50 Humpback (endangered) per year
• 5 Sperm (endangered) per year

• Registered an objection/reservation for a 1982 IWC whaling moratorium, so theyre not bound by it
• Kill 600 Minke (non-endangered) whales per year

• Iceland has an exemption to the mortatorium throgh a reservation made in 2002
• They take about 150 Fin (endangered) per year
• They take about 200 Minke (non-endangered) whales per year

1. Winds at the surface move toward the equator, but are deflected by Coriolis toward the west to form surface trade winds
2. Winds aloft move away from equator, but are deflected by Coriolis toward the east to complete the Walker-Circulation

1. Transport and pile up warm surface water on the western side of the Pacific to create a thick (200 meters) pool of very warm ocean water
2. The piled up water tilts the thermocline deeper in the west and shallower in the east

• The Coherent Osciallation (the Periodic Reversal) of the Walker Circulation Cell
• Three states of Southern Oscillation: Normal trade winds, Reversed Trade Winds, and Exceptionally Strong Trade Winds

1. Relative cooling in the Western Tropical Pacific creates drought conditions in Australia/Indonesia
2. Realtive warming in the Central and Eastern Tropical Pacific causes intense precipitation and storms

• Present: ~400 ppm
• Inter-Glacial: ~230 ppm
• Glacial: ~130 ppm

• Sunlight enters through glass as short-wavelength radiation, absorbed by car, which emits long-wavelength energy, absorbed by the car window
• More energy enters, not leaves, the car, so the car heats up

Increased Atmospheric CO2 keeps more of the suns energy then before, heating the earth

• Global temperatures were 5-10 degrees F higher than they are today
• Sea level was approximately 75-120 feet higher than today
• There was no permanent sea ice cap in the Arctic

• Atmosphere: 730
• Ocean: 38,000

• Small variations  in 3 orbital parameters that occur on time scales of 10,000 years produce small variations in solar energy reaching the earth and this acts as a triggering mechanism
• Most likely moving CO2 from the deep ocean to the atmosphere by some process we do not know about yet
• Increase CO2 in the atmosphere and the green house effect causes warming to occur

• It is unambiguous that humans are causing global warming
• Extremely likely (over 95% certain)
• More certain of humans causing global warming than we are that smoking causes cancer

• Melt water descending into a Moulin (a vertical shaft carrying water to ice sheet base
• This lubricates the ice sheet and allows increased flow over the landmass

Warming Coastal Currents does what to glaciers?

1. Open New Transport Pathways for exchange of Pacific species and Atlantic species with unknown subsequent ecological consequences
2. Create Political Unrest as nations compete for natural resource extraction from the seafloor
3. Freshwater unput to subpolar seas and subsequent decrease/halting of deep water convection and decrease/halting of meridional overturning (Conveyor Belt) circulation

• Corals get 60-90% of their energy from photosynthesis by their algal symbionts (xooxanthellae)
• Zooxanthellae algae are responsible for all of the coral's beautiful natural colors

• 30% increase in the hydrogen ion concentration of the ocean
• Similar to how soda becomes acidic with the addition of CO2 carbonation