Term
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Definition
| the scientific study of the oceans, with the goal of understanding the processes and phenomena that take place in the marine realm |
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Term
| Which are the natural sciences applied to the study of oceans within oceanography? |
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Definition
Geological Oceanography (study of rocks and sediments0
Physical Oceangraphy (how and why ocean currents flow)
Chemical Oceanography (composition of sea water and process altering it)
Biological Oceanography (organisms that live in the oceans) |
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Term
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Definition
| introduced latitude and longitude |
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Term
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Definition
| 150 BC- divided the surface of the Earth into 360 degrees |
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Term
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Definition
| 150 ad- showed the world as a globe, with north at the top and east on the right |
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Term
| Why were accurate measurements of longitude difficult to obtain before the middle of the 18th century? |
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Definition
| If you're clock was off 1 minute you are off 15 miles? John Harrison made a more accurate time piece allowing you to measure time with the sun at noon |
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Term
| What are latitude and longitude? |
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Definition
Latitude Horizontal lines around earth 90N-90S equally spaced
Longitude- Vertical lines not parallel Prime Meridian 0 |
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Term
| What information do you need to determine latitude and longitude |
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Definition
| Time and the angle to the sun at noon |
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Term
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Definition
| Voyaged on Endeavor and Resolution creating charts of the Pacific still used by the Allies in World War II |
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Term
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Definition
| Published the first chart of the gulf stream |
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Term
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Definition
| created the first reliable wind and current charts |
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Term
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Definition
| voyage on the HMS Beagle. Studied geology and biology o f the South American coastline |
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Term
| Charles(Wyville) Thompson and John Murray |
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Definition
| Directed the first modern, deep-ocean, global sampling expedition on the HMS Challenger. They visited all oceans, covering 127,000 km |
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Term
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Definition
| allowed his ship to be trapped in the Artic ice pack. The fram and its crew drifted with the pack for almost four years and 1,650 km, exploring to 85'57 N proving that no Artic continent existed |
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Term
| Which expedition is considered the beginning of modern oceanography? |
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Definition
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Term
| Why is the Glomar Challenger important? |
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Definition
| It was the first drill-ship built, starting the JOIDES program |
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Term
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Definition
| Remotely operated vehicle- an underwater vehicle that is operated remotely and not manned by humans. It can explore and sample hundreds of square kilometers of ocean floor per month. |
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Term
| What are the contributions of satellites to oceanography? |
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Definition
| measure various ocean property such as temperature, ice cover, roughness of surface (waves), and water color (indicating plankton abundance) |
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Term
| When did the universe form |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| huge rotating aggregation of stars, dust, gas and other debris held together by gravity |
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Term
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Definition
| Clouds of dust adn gas within galaxies, from which stars form |
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Term
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Definition
| massive sphere of incandescent gases |
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Term
| How did the solar system form and when? |
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Definition
5 billions years ago
a. Cloud of gas and space dusts (nebula) began to contract
b. Nebula became a rotating flattened disk
c. Most of the material was gravitationally swept toward the center, producing the sun
d. the planets began to accrete from the material that was orbiting within the flattened disk |
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Term
| How did the Earth form and when? |
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Definition
| 4.6 bya through planetesimal accretion |
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Term
| What is the process of density stratification? |
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Definition
Gravity then causes Density Stratification
A. Heavy Atoms (Iron) gravitate towards the center of the earth
B. Lighter Atoms (Silicone) gravitate towards the surface of the earth |
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Term
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Definition
| Water vapor and other gases seperated out from the rocks that make up the bulk of the Earth and were outgassed on the surface, forming the atmosphere and the oceans |
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Term
| What is outgassing and why is it important? |
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Definition
| A process, resulting form heating, by which gases and water vapor are released from molten rocks. It as produced Earth's atmosphere and oceans. |
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Term
| What is the origin of water on Earth? |
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Definition
| Water was formed after outgassing in the form of water vapor and then form droplets and eventually collecting water in basins before surface cooled down enough |
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Term
| What is the origin in evolution of the atmosphere? |
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Definition
First Atmo prior to 4.5 mil
Second (proto) Atmo gassed on through volcanoes
Earth's present is third generation |
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Term
| Why did the Earth lose its initial atmosphere |
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Definition
| Solar winds when the sun became a star swept it away |
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Term
| What is the oxygen revolution? |
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Definition
| Organisms learned to do photosynthesis creating oxygen as a bi-product (and killing of most anaerobic bacteria) |
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Term
| What is the importance of photosynthesis for the Earth evolution? |
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Definition
| It produced oxygen which is essential for aerobic respiration (which yields much more energy) |
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Term
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Definition
| In the ocean probably 3.5 (3.8) bya |
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Term
| HOw did the Challenger measure depth? |
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Definition
| Lead lines with knots were lowered to find depth of ocean (had to stop boat) |
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Term
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Definition
| ropes with something heavy (rock or weight) with knots same difference from each other and they count the knots as they lowered it to find depth of ocean (might take whole day). |
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Term
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Definition
depth measured based on reflection of a sound impulse from the sea floor
-Depth = velocity x (1/2) Time (there and back) |
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Term
| What are the problems associated with the use of echo sounding (think of wide beam bathymetry)? |
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Definition
| Sound beam spreads out and exagerates, meaning the depth you measure could be on an angle and not the actual depth of directly below you (just first sound you receive again) |
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Term
| What are the advantages of single focused sound beam bathymetry? |
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Definition
| Beam is narrower, less margin for inaccurate measurements (more likely directly below you) |
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Term
| What is a multibeam echo sounder? |
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Definition
multiple sound beams are used
Larger area can be measured at once
Receivers on both sides of ship |
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Term
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Definition
Scanner towed behind ship which can map a strip of ocean floor with a gap directly below the instrument
Gives photolike pictures, but no good at measuring depth because you have to account for distance beneath water |
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Term
| How does satellite bathymetry work? |
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Definition
Radar pulses measure from sea surface, surface is affected by mass of moutains attracting water
Difference between real height(what satellite measures)and actual height is sea surface anomally. |
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Term
| Why is it important to map the seafloor |
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Definition
| Tsunami Runup Models, Habitat Restoration, Shoreline change Analysis, Analyzing Storm Impacts- Coastal Erosion, Fisheries management commerical fishing, marine rerve design. |
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Term
| How is the surface of the Earth distributed over continents and oceans? |
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Definition
Continental area = 207x10^6 km^2 (40.6%)
Oceanic area = 303x10^6km^2 (59.4%)
11.5% of Earth is continent below sea level |
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Term
| Name the major oceans and their main characteristics |
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Definition
Pacific Ocean- Largest, deepest, lots of islands and seamounts
Atlantic Ocean- long, narrow, parrallel sides 68% of freshwater runs into it
Indian Ocean- delivery of lots of sediments to the northern part
Arctic Ocean- very broad continental shelves |
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Term
| What is the hypsographic curve and what does it tell you? |
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Definition
It plots the amount of Earth's surface at each elevation or depth
It shows that there is a bimodal distribution (two bumps one above sea level one below) |
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Term
| Where is the geological continent/ocean boundary? |
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Definition
| 2,000 m below sea level (mbsl) |
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Term
| What are continental margins and how are they subdivided? |
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Definition
| Continental margins extend from the shoreline to the deep-ocean basin, include contiental shelf, continetal slope, and continental rise (can be passive or active) |
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Term
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Definition
| gently sloping depositional surface extending from the low-water line to a marked increase in slope around the margin of a contient |
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Term
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Definition
| a relatively steeply sloping surface lying seaward of the continental shelf. |
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Term
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Definition
| A gently sloping depositional surface at the base of the continental slope. |
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Term
| Typical passive continental margin |
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Definition
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Term
| How do submarine canyons form? |
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Definition
they cut into the continental shelf and slope, terminating in a fan-shaped wedge of sediment
Formed by turbidity currents |
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Term
| What is a turbidity current? |
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Definition
Underwater avalanches caused by earthquake or volcanic eruption
Made up of very find mud like sediments |
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Term
| What are deep sea trenches? |
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Definition
narrow steep-sided troughs as deep as 11 km, 50-200 km wide, and thousand of km long
Always occur in active margins, always occur together with volcanoes |
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Term
| Active Continental Margin |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the difference between an atlantic-like and Pacific-like continental margin |
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Definition
Atlantic is passive with a continental rise
Pacific is active with a deep sea trench |
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Term
| What are the main features of the deep sea ocean basin? |
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Definition
| abyssal plains, abyssal hills, seamounts, mid-oceanic ridges, and deep sea trenches. |
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Term
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Definition
| flat portions of the ocean floor covered by sediments |
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Term
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Definition
| small extinct volcanoes or intrusions of once molten rock covered by sediments |
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Term
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Definition
| under water volcanoes that rise abruptly and steeply from the ocean floor (flat topped are guyots) |
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Term
| Difference between abyssal hills and seamounts? |
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Definition
| Seamounts are much higher than abysmal hills (up to 1 km) and tend to be active (volcanoes?) |
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Term
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Definition
| when seamounts are moved off the source of magma the tops eroded after a few million years. |
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Term
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Definition
| continuous system of mountain chans that runs through every ocean basin |
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Term
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Definition
| In middle of ridge there is rift valley (present in Atlantic and Indian not Pacific) |
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Term
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Definition
| fractures that run perpendicular to Mid ocean ridge (area in between axis) |
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Term
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Definition
| long, narrow regions of broken or disturbed seafloor |
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Term
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Definition
| the ratio of mass to unit volume |
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Term
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Definition
| a phenomenon that results from the sudden release of stored energy in the form of low-frequency waves called seismic waves |
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Term
| How is seismology important for the study of the interior of the Earth? |
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Definition
| By measuring the speed waves take to reach different parts of the earth we can find out the density and different layers of the earth |
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Term
| What are P-waves and S-waves |
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Definition
P-Waves (compressional waves) travel by squeezing and expanding the medium they travel through. They can travel though both sounds and liquids. (spring) twice as fast as S-waves
S- Waves (Shear waves)- travel by shearing the medium they pass through. S-waves can travel through only solids (whip) |
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Term
| What are the main difference between the behavior of P-waves and S-wave? |
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Definition
| P-waves are faster and can go through liquids |
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Term
| WHy do S-waves disappear in the outer core? |
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Definition
| They can't travel through liquid? |
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Term
| How would you expect P-waves and S-waves to behave as they attempt to travel between 1) the mantle and the outer core: 2)the outer core and the inner core? |
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Definition
1) S-wave disappear and P-waves slow down due to change from solid to liquid
2) S-waves return and both waves speed up |
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Term
| How does density change inside the Earth, from the surface to the core? |
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Definition
| Increases constantly, big jump between mantle and outer core (jumps at all) |
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Term
| Where are the largest contrasts in material properties (density, velocity of P- and S- waves) located inside the Earth |
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Definition
| Large increase in density between mantle and Outer core and decrease (disappearance for S-waves) in velocity. |
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Term
| Describe the classification of the Earth's interior based on chemical composition. |
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Definition
Crust- thin, light outermost layer
Mantle- made of oxygen and silicon with Fe and Mg
Core- consists mainly of Fe and Ni |
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Term
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Definition
| The chemical boundary between the crust and mantle |
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Term
| What are the effects of increasing temperature and pressure on the physical properties of the rock material inside the Earth? |
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Definition
Increasing pressure- raises the melting point of a material
Increasing temperature- provides additional energy to the atoms and molecules of matter eventually causing the material to melt |
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Term
| Describe the classification of the Earth's interior based on physical properties of the material inside the Earth? |
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Definition
Lithosphere- rigid outer layer, crust + uppermost mantle
Asthenosphere- deformable layer of upper mantle
Lower mantle- denser and less deformable layer of upper mantle
Lower mantle- denser and less deformable
Outer core: dense, viscous liquid
Inner core: solid, very dense~ 6,600 C (hotter than surface of sun) |
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Term
| What is the chemical composition of the Earth's core? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the two kinds of crust of the Earth? |
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Definition
| Continental and Oceanic crust |
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Term
| Difference between Continental and Oceanic Crust |
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Definition
Continetal Crust is granite, has low density, and rises high above the supporting mantle rocks
Oceanic Crust is basalt, has greater density, and does not rise as high above the mantle |
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Term
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Definition
| the ability of an object to float in a liquid by displacing a volume of that fluid EQUAL in weight to the weight of the floating object |
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Term
| Why is continental crust thickest under the tallest mountains? |
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Definition
| Because of isostasy it has to displace the mantle and stretches underneath?? |
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Term
| Explain the distribution of elevated continents and depressed ocean basins? |
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Definition
| Continents are less dense than oceanic crust so they rise while oceanic crust sinks. |
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Term
| What is isostatic adjustment and when does it occur? |
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Definition
| adjustment of crustal material due to isotasy, (think mountains) |
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Term
| Who proposed the Theory of Continental Drift? |
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Definition
| Alfred Wegener 1912, which proposed that continents are not stationary but drift around Earth's surface, and that the ocean basins are the holes left behind |
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Term
| What are the four sets of evidence that Wegener cited to support his ideas about continental drift? |
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Definition
1. The fit of continents
2. Used to be continous mountain belt
3. Fossil evidence
4. Late Paleozoic Glaciations happens only in polar regions yet there is evidence of it in India |
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Term
| What is the mechanism of Continental Drift and why was it rejected? |
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Definition
heavy continents pulled toward the equator by centrifugal force and by effect of sun and moon
Problem- Centrifugal force is pretty weak, and they though whole earth was rigid |
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Term
| In the 1950s scientists started to accumulate new evidence that corroborated the Theory of Continental Drift. What are these data? |
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Definition
New seismic data
Improvements of radiometric dating (showed young crust)
Mapping of ocean floor-showed submerged mountain ranges
Wandering magnetic poles
Heat flow |
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Term
| Describe the pattern of earthquakes on the Earth's surface? |
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Definition
| Shallow earthquakes move along ridges |
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Term
| What is the difference in age between the seafloor and the continents? |
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Definition
| Oldest seafloor is only 180 billion years old |
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Term
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Definition
| The study of Earth's ancient magnetic field |
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Term
| Why do rocks have a magnetic field and how do they get it? |
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Definition
| They contain iron rich magnetic materials, and record magnetic field as they cool through their Curie point |
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Term
| Where does the Earth's Magnetic Field come from? |
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Definition
| movements in liquid outer core cause magnetic field. |
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Term
| What are the positive and negative magnetic anomalies found on the seafloor? What is there significance |
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Definition
| They are a repetitive pattern of positive and negative magnetic intensities arranged in a zebra stripe fashion, they show ancient reversals of Earth's magnetic field |
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Term
| Describe the Age pattern of the seafloor |
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Definition
| The seafloor has magnetic anomalies symmetrically distributed about ocean ridge axis progressively getting younger towards the middle |
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Term
| What is the apparent polar wandering? What is its significance? |
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Definition
| The pole seems to move (in different directions)by looking at older rocks magnetic field, but if you move the continents back together it has one path (proving continental drift) |
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Term
| How do heat flow measurements and the thickness of marine sediments corroborate the Theory of Plate Tectonics? |
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Definition
Mid ocean ridge you have high heat flow, and along subduction zones you have very little or none. That goes together with the theory of plate tetoncis, asthenosphere bulges up and comes to surface very hot at divergent zones (mid ocean ridge)
Thickness of sediments- there is basically no sediment coverage on top of mid ocean ridge system, as you move away from axis, sediment coverage becomes thicker and thicker (new crust didn't have time to accumulate sediments) |
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Term
| What are the three main assumptions of plate tectonics? |
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Definition
1. The lithosphere is broken into plates that move at rates of a few cm/yr and interact with each other at the plate
boundaries
2. Lithospheric plates move on the ductile asthenosphere
3. Plates consist of either oceanic lithosphere only or oceanic & continent lithosphe (boundaries have a high degree of activity) |
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Term
| What is a plate and what does it consist of? |
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Definition
| Lithosphere that moves on a converyor belt (asthenosphere) |
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Term
| List and describe all the types of divergent, convergent, and transform boundaries? |
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Definition
Divergent boundaries- plates move apart (only in ocean there are ridges) Mid Ocean Ridges
Convergent boundaries- plates move toward each other (only in ocean does subduction occur) Deep Sea Trenches (subduction zones)
Transform boundaries- plates slide past one antoher (transform faults) |
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Term
| Along which plate boundaries do you find only shallow earthquakes |
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Definition
| Transform (can also have mid earthquakes) and divergent only has shallow |
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Term
| Where do deep earthquakes occur |
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Definition
| Only at convergent boundaries because the sub ducted plate can sink lithosphere 340 km below |
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Term
| Describe the Various Stages of the formation of a new ocean basin like the Atlantic Ocean. |
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Definition
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Term
| What is a spreading center? How is it expressed on earth? |
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Definition
| At divergent boundaries, they are where new crust is being generated and the two plates move away from each other |
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Term
| What is the difference between oceanic ridges and rises? Where do you find them? |
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Definition
Oceanic rise is flater and spread faster
Oceanic ridge has rift valley, peaks,and spread slower, they both appear on the mid ocean ridge |
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Term
| What is a transform fault? What is a fracture zone? How are they formed? |
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Definition
Tranform Faults- where plates shear laterally past each other
Fracture Zone- See earlier definition
They are formed to accomodate spreading of a linear ridge system on spherical Earth |
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Term
| What is a subduction zone? How is it expressed on the surface of the Earth? |
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Definition
| regions in which crust is recycled into the mantle, they are expressed in deep sea trenches. |
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Term
| Along which plate boundaries do you find the most of the world's volcanoes? |
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Definition
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Term
| How does and ocean close? |
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Definition
| Convergent boundaries converge until all the oceanic crust is subducted |
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Term
| What factors determine which of the two colliding oceanic plates will be subducted? |
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Definition
| The older (denser and colder) plate will be subducted |
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Term
| Why is continental lithosphere not subducted? |
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Definition
| Because both have equal density that is to low in density to be pulled very far down into mantle, instead mountains are formed |
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Term
| What is the mechanism that drives plate tectonics? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are hot spots? What do hot spots create on the Earth's surface? Why are they useful in tracing the motions of plates? |
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Definition
Hot Spots- surface expressions of plumes of magma rising from stationary soruce of heat in the mantle
Give rise to linear island and volcanic chains
They are stationary so we see plates move with respect to them |
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Term
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Definition
| Coral reef forms around active voclano island, as hot spot moves volcano cools and sinks until there is nothing atoll |
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Term
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Definition
| Built by hotspot and mid ocean ridge system |
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Term
| What are the major events of the last spreading cycle? |
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Definition
180 mil Pangea Splits (ocean Panthalassa)
150 Laurasia and Gondwana
135 South atlantic forming
70 Atlantic devloped
50 mil Australia formed
40 India collided with asia |
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Term
| What are Marine Sediments? |
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Definition
| Particles of various sizes derived from a variety of sources that are deposited on the ocean floor |
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Term
| How do you classify sediments based on their source? |
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Definition
Terrigenous- erosion of continents volcanic ash
Biogenous- formed biologically in the ocean
Hydrogenous- precipitate from seawater
Cosmogenous- dust from space |
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Term
| How do classify terrigenous sediments based on size? |
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Definition
| By grain size (diameter) indicates hwo grains are transported where they accumulate |
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Term
| What is the Hjulstrom's Diagram? What does it tell you? |
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Definition
describes the relationship between grain size and horizontal current velocity that result in erosion, transportation or sediment deposition
Erosion goes up for clay |
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Term
| Why are clay sized particles more difficult to erode than sand sized particles? |
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Definition
| Clay's stick to each other so you're not dealing with a single grains but rather a wall. |
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Term
| What is sorting? Rounding? Sediment maturity? |
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Definition
Sorting- degree of uniformity of grain size
Rounding- gives us clues to the amount of time a sediment has been transported
How old sediment is based on previous descriptions |
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Term
| What are biogenous sediments |
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Definition
| Particles produced directly by marine organisms |
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Term
| What are the major types of marine organisms whose shell remains result in the formation of carbonate (calcareous) and siliceous biogenous sediments? |
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Definition
Calcareous- Foraminifera- zooplankton and Coccolithophores- phytoplankton
Siliceous- Radiolaria (zooplankton) and Diatoms (phytoplankton) |
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Term
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Definition
| 30% of weight is biogenous (rarely happens on continental shelf) |
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Term
| What are hydrogenous sediments? Describe the different kinds them. |
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Definition
Precipitate (crystallize) directly from seawater.
Manganese (only found in middle of ocean away from margin) and phosphorite nodules (only on continental shelf-indicate high biological activity) , evaporites (warm climate isolated areas) , sulfides from black smokers, carbonates |
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Term
|
Definition
| Hydrothermal vents that are hot springs discovered on oceanic ridges |
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Term
| What are cosmogenous sediments? What are their source? |
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Definition
| derived mostly from interplanetary dust and impacts by large asteriods and comets |
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Term
| What are microketites and how do they form |
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Definition
| Impact of large meteors or small asteroids on the crust of the earth form translucent oblong particles of glass (found around extinction of dinosaurs) |
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Term
| What are neritic sediments? Where do you find them? |
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Definition
terrigenous sediments whereas a greater proportion of deep-sea sediments is of biogenous origin they tend to be coarser
Found on continental shelf |
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Term
| What are pelagic sediments? Where do you find them? |
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Definition
| deposits of sediment found on the deep ocean floor beyond the continental rise. They typically tend to be finer |
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Term
| How would you expect grain size to be distributed ideally along the continental shelf? |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| How do sea level changes affect the distribution of sediment grain size on the continental shelf? |
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Definition
| Make is so they are multiple graded layers? |
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Term
| What are relict sediments? |
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Definition
| A sediment deposited under a set of environmental conditions that still remains unchanged although the environment has changed and it reamins unburied by later sediments |
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Term
| How are sediments distributed according to latitude on the continental shelf? |
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Definition
| Biogenic by equator then Terrigenous- then relict then glacial-marine |
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Term
| What is a turbidity current? What kind of deposits does it produce? How? |
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Definition
| Graded, because it takes less energy to transport finer deposits farther |
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Term
| What does sediment distribution in the deep ocean depend on? |
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Definition
1. Latitude
2. Distance from landmasses
3. Calcium carbonate compensation depth (CCD) |
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Term
| What are the most common types of pelagic sediments? |
|
Definition
|
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Term
| What are red clays? Where do you find them? How do they accumulate and form? |
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Definition
fine grained reddish-brown terrigenous sediments that accumulate very slwolya nd cover the deepest abyssal basins. Produced by chemical weathering
Chlorite-high lat
Kaolonite- low lat
Illite- southern hemisphere |
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Term
| What controls the distribution of biogenous sediments? |
|
Definition
1. Production in surface waters;
2. Dilution on the sea floor-
3. Dissolution in deep waters- more =less S |
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Term
| Why are fecal pellets important for the deposition of pelagic sediments |
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Definition
| it would take 20 to 50 years for them to make it to the ocean floor, fecal pellets take 10-15 days, allow you to make assumption that what you study reflect the surface |
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Term
| How is dissolution different for calcareous and siliceous sediments? |
|
Definition
Calcareous sediments dissappear after CCD
Siliceous particles dissolve more slowly (faster at warm waters) and don't dissolve after a certain depth |
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Term
| What is the calcium carbonate compensation depth? What controls its formation and depth? |
|
Definition
Depth at which the rate of supply of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) equals the rate of dissolution?
Affected by rate of productiona nd supply |
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Term
| Where in the ocean do you find calcareous oozes? Why? |
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Definition
| Found in middle ocean (near mid ocean ridges) where you find calcium carbonate is where your mid ocean ridge is (shallower there) |
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Term
| Where in the ocean do you find siliceous oozes? Why? |
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Definition
| high latitude and along equator, because these two locations are characterized by high productivity |
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