Term
| Big Bang happened roughly ____________ years ago |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| At the time of the big bang, there was only ________ and _______ in the universe |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Gravity pulls these two things together to form _______ elements through ________ ________ |
|
Definition
| heavier, thermonuclear reaction |
|
|
Term
| These heavier elements are |
|
Definition
| carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous |
|
|
Term
| Larger stars exploding formed |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| our own sun is thought to be a _______ ________ ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Roughly, there are _____ _______ galaxies with ______ _______ stars |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| temperatures in the core of large masses increase due to _____________ ______________ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Core temperatures at 10 million degrees kelvin cause ________ ___________ of H --> He |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| nuclear fusion of H --> He |
|
Definition
-thermonuclear fusion reaction
forms heat and visible light |
|
|
Term
| All _______, __________, and __________ atoms making up my current physical body were at one point sitting in the center of a boiling hot star |
|
Definition
| carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous |
|
|
Term
| Terrestrial planets build up by |
|
Definition
| multiple collisions and accretion of planetesimals |
|
|
Term
| giant outer planets grew by ______ ____________ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-terrestrial
-relatively small
-contain the heavier elements (Fe, Si, O)
-rocky shell over a metallic core
-4.6 billion years old |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-gaseous
-mostly volatile gases (H, He)
-same composition as the sun |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| asteroids and comets. essentially, compositions of grain, matter |
|
|
Term
| __________ years ago, rock-forming elements condensed into small solid grains as _______ cooled |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ formed when Earth was hit by a Mars sized object (__________ years after Earth accreted) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ ______ _______ makes 23 degree angle with _______ ______ |
|
Definition
| earth spin axis; orbital plane |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-atmosphere consisted of hydrogen and helium
-most of the gases lost to space |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-out-gassing from volcanoes releases -- water, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide. N2, H2, Cl2
-water vapor condensed and precipitated to form oceans --> anaerobic life develops
-photosynthetic life evolves and this produces a modern oxygen rich atmosphere |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pacific, atlantic, indian, arctic, southern |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| _______ % of earth is water |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| scale earth down to size of |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
in scaled down earth,
ocean thickness would be _____
atmospheric thickness would be ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ _______ of the atmosphere's mass is within _____ ____ of the planetary surface |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Earth and sun are middle aged, both have about ____ ________ years of life left |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Latitude runs ______ to _____, it is a measure of degrees from ________ and _______ _______ to a certain point. |
|
Definition
East; West
Equator; global center
*equator is 0 |
|
|
Term
| Longitude runs _______ to ______, it is a measure of degrees from ________ ________ and _______ ________ to a certain point |
|
Definition
North, South
Prime Meridian; global center
*prime meridian is 0 (greenwich, england) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| creates a track line of bottom depth as the ship moves forward |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| creates a swath of bottom depth as the ship moves forward |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| creates a high resolution swath of bottom depth as the ship moves forward |
|
|
Term
| theory of continental drift |
|
Definition
alfred wegener 1915
developed the idea of plate tectonics; not well accepted at the time despite overwhelming evidence.
Wegner had the wrong forcing mechanism of movement |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| was accepted after sea floor spreading and sea floor subduction were discovered in post WW2 exploration |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-rigid outer crust (thin and rigid, floats on mantle)
-plastic upper mantle
-outer core (molten)
-inner core (solid) |
|
|
Term
| theory of plate tectonics: |
|
Definition
| steady accumulation of evidence leading to the birth of a new theory |
|
|
Term
| Alfred Wegener noticed apparent ____ _____ of continents as well as the ________________________ |
|
Definition
good fit;
distribution of fossil and mineral belts |
|
|
Term
| ________ ___________ in ocean crust provided strong evidence of seafloor spreading |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| _______ __________ are a proxy measurement of geologic time--each __________________ |
|
Definition
magnetic anomalies;
anomaly can be assigned a specific geologic date |
|
|
Term
| Discover of deep sea trenches and associated seismic activity helped to explain: |
|
Definition
| the eventual loss of ocean crust that was initially formed at mid ocean ridges |
|
|
Term
| driving mechanism of plate tectonics: |
|
Definition
| convection in the mantle and slab pull |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-thin: 5km
-relatively higher density
- consists of mostly basalt
-average density 3g/cm cubed
-thinner and only slightly less dense so they float lower in the mantle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-thick: 70 km
-has a relatively lower density
-consists mostly of granite
-average density - 2.7 g/cm cubed
-thicker and less dense so they float higher on the mantle |
|
|
Term
| ________ ________ is created by divergent boudnaries |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
oceanic and continental
oceanic and oceanic
continental and continental |
|
|
Term
| convergent boundaries: oceanic and continental |
|
Definition
-deep ocean trenches
-explosive volcanoes
-subduction related volcanoes are particularly explosive and dangerous
-mount st helens |
|
|
Term
| convergent boundaries: oceanic and oceanic |
|
Definition
-older plate goes under
-deep ocean trench
-chain of volcanoes = island arc |
|
|
Term
| convergent boundaries: continental and continental |
|
Definition
mountains are formed
everest |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| plates slide laterally relative to one another |
|
|
Term
| sediment thickness is high near coast due to: |
|
Definition
| river runoff of terrigenous sediment and high productivity that leads to high rain rate of biological material |
|
|
Term
| red clays found in open ocean: |
|
Definition
| slow rain of continental dust |
|
|
Term
| ________ or ___________ sediments found in high biological productivity regions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| rate of accumulation is very slow; 10 meter sediment core can = |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| proxy measurements of past ocean conditions: |
|
Definition
-surface water conditions
-biological productivity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some oxygen has mass of 18 |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| proxy measure for temperature measurement is to use: |
|
Definition
| isotope ratio of oxygen preserved in shells of calcite fossils |
|
|
Term
| O18 is preferentially __________ from the water and incorporated into ______ _______ during growth |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| All things equal, calcite in shells grown in ______ _______ will have more O18 than calcite grown in _______ _______ |
|
Definition
| colder temperatures; warmer temperatures |
|
|
Term
| we are currently experiencing a _______ mass extinction |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| distance a wave crest travels per unit time |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| time it takes a wave crest to travel one wavelength |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| number of crests passing a fixed location per unit of time |
|
|
Term
| waves propagate ______ but not ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Determinants of wave speed: |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| waves with longer wavelength travel _______ than waves with shorter wavelength |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| waves traveling in deeper water travel ________ than waves traveling in shallower water |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| under certain exceptional circumstances, __________________________ will be the primary determinant of wave speed |
|
Definition
| only wavelength or only bottom depth |
|
|
Term
| in very deep water, _________ determines wave speed |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in very shallow water, ___________ determines wave speed |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-bottom depth is deeper that 1/2 the wavelength
-speed is a function of wavelength only
-more wavelength = more fast |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-bottom depth is shallower than 1/20 the wavelength
-speed is a function of depth
-more shallow = more slow |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| speed is a function of both wavelength and bottom depth |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| self sorting of deep water waves leaving a storm region based on wavelength |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the bending of shallow water wave fronts due to change in bottom depth
(focusing and defocusing of wave energy on headlands and bays respectively) |
|
|
Term
| ______ _______ is different in different seasons |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| summer (constructive waves) |
|
Definition
| gentle waves push offshore sandbar shoreward to create wide and gently sloping sandy summer beach |
|
|
Term
| winter (deconstructive waves) |
|
Definition
storm waves drag sand off the beach to be stored in offshore sandbar, resulting in rocky winter beach
-steep beach |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-initiated when large waves push water onto an elevated beach face
-seldom wider than about 10 meters
-can pull a person hundreds of meters offshore |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| wind speed, wind duration, wind fetch |
|
|
Term
| wave height determinants: wind speed |
|
Definition
| sets the upper possible limit on wave height for a fully developed sea |
|
|
Term
| wave height determinants: wind duration |
|
Definition
| modulates the upper possible limit on wave height |
|
|
Term
| wave height determinants: wind fetch |
|
Definition
the distance over which wind can blow without obstruction
modulates the upper possible limit on wave height |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ in the open ocean is limited by the size of the storm system |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| equilibrium model of tides = |
|
Definition
highly idealized but instructive
-tide wave treated as a deep water wave in equilibrium
-no interference from continents |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1 high tide and 1 low tide per day |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 2 equal high tides and 2 equal low tides per day |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 2 unequal high tides and 2 unequal low tides per day |
|
|
Term
| tidal bulges created by the |
|
Definition
| pull of the gravity of the moon and centrifugal force |
|
|
Term
| tidal bulges are on ________ sides of the earth and case the _____________ over roughly a _________ |
|
Definition
opposite;
rise and fall of the tides;
24 hr period |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| tidal day = 24 hr and 50 min |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| moon orbit is inclined at ___________ which causes changes in _____________ |
|
Definition
| 28 degrees; the daily pattern of tides |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-occur when the moon pulls along the same line as the sun
-occur on new and full moons
-relatively higher |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-occur when the moon pulls at 90 degrees to the sun
-occur on first and last quarter moon |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| diurnal, semidiurnal, mixed semidiurnal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| dynamic theory of tides--a more realistic view of tides: |
|
Definition
-rotary tidal motion
-larger tidal ranges in coastal vs open ocean regions
-tide wave treated as a forced shallow water wave
-affected by the Coriolis force
-continents interfere with the propagation of the tide wave |
|
|
Term
| all ocean tides are pinched upwards from the ________________ on all the ocean |
|
Definition
| cumulative lateral pull by the moon |
|
|
Term
| _______ are not large enough to experience this, hence no tides |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| tide waves are ______ _____ _____ _____ |
|
Definition
| forced shallow water waves |
|
|
Term
| _________ __________ causes the high tide to occur sometime after the moon appears to pass overhead |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| _______ ________ has a very significant effect on the direction of tidal propagation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Coriolis always acts exactly to the ________ of the direction of motion in the northern hemisphere, and always directly to the ________ of the motion in the southern hemisphere |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Global surface wind patterns |
|
Definition
| easterlies, westerlies, trades |
|
|
Term
| contained within latitude bands |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ocean surface temperatures |
|
Definition
-warmest near equator
-coldest near poles |
|
|
Term
| atmospheric convection and precipitation is strongest along ______________ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the weight of a column of air is ______ _________ to the average molecular weight of the mix of all molecules making up the air |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| vertical distribution of density directly influences the ________________________ |
|
Definition
| vertical movement of water in the ocean |
|
|
Term
| salt concentration and water temperature jointly determine _________ _________ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| surface ocean temp is determined by the ______________ |
|
Definition
| exchange of heat between the ocean surface and the atmosphere |
|
|
Term
| ocean temp is a measure of ____________ |
|
Definition
| the heat energy contained in the ocean |
|
|
Term
when more energy than leaves the ocean surface, ________________.
converse is also true. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ________ _________ takes away heat |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| all direct solar heating takes place _______________ |
|
Definition
| very near the ocean surface (0-30m) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| broad region centered at around 500 m where seawater temp changes from warm to uniformly cold |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in some ocean regions, occurs in summer and is erased in winter |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a region of strong change in density with depth...comes and goes with net heat gains in spring and summer and net heat losses in fall and winter |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| remains in place at around 500 meters and is the result of the long term balance between the downward heating/mixing at the surface and upward mixing of cold water from below |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
a slab of surface ocean water (30-60m) moved by wind forcing
-due to wind force, friction force, and coriolis force
-moves at exactly 90 degrees to the direction of the wind forcing |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| currents that move along lines of constant pressure |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the point at which currents move with steady speed with coriolis and pressure gradient forces in perfect opposition...results in geostrophic current |
|
|
Term
| subtropical gyre development |
|
Definition
-westerly and trade winds drive the ekman layer to the center of the gyre to create a mound of surface water
-the push of coriolis turns the fluid until it travels along concentric lines of constant pressure (geostrophic balance) |
|
|
Term
| western boundary currents |
|
Definition
-western side of subtropical gyres
-very swift and narrow
-bring warm water from the tropics to high latitudes |
|
|
Term
| eastern boundary currents |
|
Definition
-eastern side of subtropical gyres
-broad and slow
-bring cold water from the high latitudes toward the tropics |
|
|
Term
| atlantic ocean temp at depth |
|
Definition
-warm thin surface layer
-cold thick deep layer
-thermocline separates the warm and cold layers |
|
|
Term
| atlantic ocean salinity at depth |
|
Definition
-high salinity in surface layer in subtropics
-deep ocean salinity more uniform and generally matches the surface salinity at higher latitude-especially northern high latitudes |
|
|
Term
| temp/salinity: NADW (North Atlantic Deep Water) |
|
Definition
-labrador sea
-imminger sea
-greenland sea
-norwegian sea |
|
|
Term
| temp/salinity: AABW (antarctic bottom water) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| temp/salinity: AAIW (antarctic intermediate water) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| global conveyer belt circulation: |
|
Definition
| combining the deep circulation and the wind-driven surgace circulation |
|
|
