Term
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Definition
maltose- 2 glucose
lactose- glucose + galactose
sucrose- glucose + fructose |
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Term
| The most common poysaccharide in animal tissue is |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
string of glucose molecules with alpha 1-4 linkages
when it is broken down it is used for energy in fight or fright
stored in the liver |
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Term
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Definition
amylose- linear 1-4
amylopectin- branched 1-6 and linear 1-4 |
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Term
| When fructose enters glycolysis it ends up as |
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Definition
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Term
| when galactose enters glycolysis |
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Definition
| it enters during the building or breakdown of glucose |
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Term
| -________ is produced from glucose in anaerobic conditions and is converted into _______. |
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Definition
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Term
| glycogenesis only occurs mainly in the___ |
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Definition
| liver, it is used as an instant source of energy. |
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Term
| The entrance and exit of glucose is controlled by |
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Definition
glucokinase which is induced by insulin.
It adds a phosphate to glucose which traps it in the cell |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| The purpose of glycolysis is to |
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Definition
| convert 6 carbon sugar to two molecules of pyruvate - 3 carbon |
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Term
If oxygen is present glycolysis will go through the _______
if there is no oxygen ______ builds up in the muscles |
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Definition
Krebs cycle- oxygen
lactose builds up due to broken down pyruvate |
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Term
| Glycolysis uses _______ and produces _____ for a net gain of _____. |
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Definition
2 ATP
4 ATP
net of 2
Also produces 2 NADH |
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Term
| for galactose to be used in the krebs cycle it can be broken down into |
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Definition
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Term
| for fructose to be used in krebs cycle |
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Definition
| high concentration of fructose- fructokinase convert to glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone |
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Term
| what is a regulator of glycolysis |
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Definition
| phosphofructokinase is down regulated by ATP, citrate and glucagon. and up regulated by AMP and ADP |
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Term
| Hexose-monophosphate shunt or the pentose phosphate pathway is a way to generate_____ |
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Definition
| five carbon sugars- pentoses that are used in nucleic acid synthesis |
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Term
| Two types of hexose monophosphate shunt |
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Definition
oxidative- 1 pentose and 2 NADPH
non oxidative- 2 pentose |
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Term
| To use pyruvate for energy, it must get from the _______ to the ________ and to do this it uses ________/ |
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Definition
| pyruvate must to the cytoplasm to the mitochonidria by using a protein transport |
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Term
| This happens to pyruvate when it enters the mitochondria before it enters the krebs cycle |
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Definition
| it gets decarboxylated and dehydrogenated to produce acetyl CoA. - The enzyme in this reaction is pyuvate dehydrogenase complex. |
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Term
| if a cell lacks a mitochondria then the pyruvate goes through_____and creates _____ ATP |
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Definition
| erythrocytes do not have a mitochondria, they use glycolysis to get 2 ATP per glucose |
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Term
| What are the main purposes of the krebs cycle |
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Definition
to create energy and create intermediates that are involved with making fats, proteins and carbs
Captures the energy in the H bonds of co-substrates NAD and FAD |
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Term
| what are the products of the krebs cycle |
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Definition
| 3 NADH, 1 FADH2 and one GTP- per acetyl co a! |
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Term
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Definition
| It serves to produce ATP via oxidative phosphorylation. It produces energy as heat and H2O |
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Term
| NADH and FADH2 from the krebs cycle are sent to _________ to produce______ |
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Definition
| ETC, to produce ATP by removing Hs and electrons that are used to create the high energy bonds of ATP |
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Term
| How many ATP are produce by NADH,.... FADH2 |
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Definition
3 ATP / NADH
2 ATP / FADH2 |
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Term
| the total amount of ATP formed per glucose molecule in the glycolysis and krebs cycle combined in aerobic conditions |
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Definition
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Term
| if the krebs cycle stops working |
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Definition
| go into ketosis--- build up of acetyl coA |
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Term
| Other things that can be broken down and used as intermediates inthe krebs cycle |
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Definition
| amino acids- converted to 4C |
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Term
| the limiting factor for the running of the krebs cycle is |
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Definition
oxaloacetate
-combines 1 to 1 with acetyl CoA to produce citrate at the top of the cycle |
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Term
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Definition
the filling up reaction
-pyruvate caboxylase converts pyruvate to oxaloacetate |
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Term
| Pyruvate carboxylase is used in |
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Definition
| the mitochondria to convert pyruvate to oxalocetate |
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Term
| Fat has to burn in a carb flame |
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Definition
| you have to have some glucose to form pyruvate to fuel the krebs cycle and burn fat. |
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Term
| Alanine can be deaminated to produce___ |
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Definition
| pyruvate if there is no glucose- take from protein |
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Term
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Definition
| the reverse of glycolysis- to make glucose |
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Term
| There are some steps that are irreversible to synthesize glucose to do this ... |
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Definition
-glucokinase and phosphofructokinase= use two phosphatase reactions- one for fructose and one for glucose
-pyruvate kinase is bypassed by changing pyruvate to oxylacetate to malate which allows it to pass out of the mitochondira which converts to oxylacetate in the cytoplasm and can enter the glycolytic pathway to make glucose |
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Term
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Definition
| muscle and fat cannot produce glucose, but produce lactose- it is transported to the liver and enters the cori cycle to make glucose and brought to the muscle or fat |
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Term
| fructose- why does it matter |
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Definition
| what is its impact on weight gain and metabolic syndroe. a risk factor for heart disease |
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Term
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Definition
| does not stimulate insulin response , but means it is not regulated by lepitin which is involved in decreasing hunger during a meal. |
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Term
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Definition
it can produce glyceradehyde and glycerol
- glycerol is the back bone of TAGs and G3P which makes acetyl coa
-has the ability to faciliate the synthesis of fat by producing two precursors |
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Term
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Definition
| avoids the regulatory step in glycolysis- (phosphofructokinase) which means the liver will metabolise any fructose coming to it, regardless of energy status) |
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Term
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Definition
same sweetness as sucrose
-cheaper
Mixture of fructose and glucose (isomerization of glucose) |
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Term
nutrient content claims
two types |
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Definition
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Term
| a generic nutrient content claim |
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Definition
| announces that the food has more or less of a desired nutrient level... free, low, lean |
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Term
| a comparative nutrient content claim |
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Definition
| the amount in a food is compared to that in a reference food.... reduce, less, light |
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Term
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Definition
| link a nutrient or a food with the risk of a disease or health state but not the prevention or treatment |
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Term
| what are the three ways to propose a health claim |
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Definition
- formal petition
-petition
-qualified health claim |
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Term
| what do you need for a formal health claim |
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Definition
significant scientific agreement, and many supporting resutls - it gets published
receives a grade A |
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Term
| Petition, what do you need for a health claim |
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Definition
based on current published statements from federal bodies
Grade A only for food |
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Term
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Definition
| allo claims with out studies which have disclaimers - based on publically available info, claim grade B-D |
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Term
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Definition
A - unqualified statements approved in 1993- high level of comfort
B-good to moderate level of comfort
C- some evidence suggests
D-very low level |
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Term
| Types of studies used for level A health claim |
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Definition
-epi studies
-animal studies
-clinical studies
-clinical trials |
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Term
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Definition
cross sectional
observational
Case control |
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Term
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Definition
data collected at one timepoint -compare subjects who has a disease to those who do not
-Epi study |
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Term
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Definition
-large groups and is selected and followed for a period of time.
-Epi Study |
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Term
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Definition
less people than observational
find a group of people with a disease then match them up with controls. can move forward in time or collect past data. |
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Term
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Definition
| allow testing of carcinogous materials, manipulate the diet, |
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Term
| Human Experimental clinical study |
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Definition
- control for confounding variables
-manipulate diet or drug treatment
-short period of time
- |
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Term
| Prospective clinical trial |
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Definition
-GOLD STANDARD
-many many people
-placebo controlled
-double blind
-randomized
-followed for years
-multi center |
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Term
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Definition
= placebos
blinding
good measures of dietary intake
compliance checks
run in and wash out periods
clear end points
power estimates, statistical controls |
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Term
| amino acids are made up of what |
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Definition
-an amino group
-a carboxylic acid group
-an R group |
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Term
| what are the properties of AA |
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Definition
the side chain can be neutral (alaphatic)
or charged- based on pH |
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Term
| we can produce ___ of the ____ essential AA |
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Definition
6 of the 9 AA
-Lysine, threonine and histidine cannot be made |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| break down and use the carbon chain for energy, glucose, and harvest the nitrogen |
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Term
| the ___ is the gate keeper for most AA dispersal |
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Definition
| liver, it monitors AA metabolism |
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Term
| most branched AA stay in the blood for muscle |
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Definition
| isoleucine and leucine and valine |
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Term
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Definition
- albumin
transport minerals and vitamins.
-lipoprotein
-transport proteins |
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Term
| nitrogen containing bases |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| start with removal of nitrogen by transaminiation or deaminiation |
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Term
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Definition
| swap amino grouop to another carbon skeleton |
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Term
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Definition
| removal of the amino group |
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Term
| The only sulfur containing AA |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
produces alpha keto acids plus another AA
glutamate + alpha keto acid <-> alpha ketoglutarate + alpha AA |
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Term
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Definition
reluts ina nitrogen as ammonia that needs disposal by the urea cycle
NH4+ + alpha ketoglutarate <-> glutamate
-need NADPH |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
chemical reactions
food we eat
produced by bacteria
deamination |
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Term
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Definition
| BUN- biomarker for efficiency of kidney disposal of urea produced- shown in blood |
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Term
| combo of TCA cycle and urea cycle |
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Definition
TCA provides ocaloacetate which reacts with glutamate to form aspartate
- TCA provides the CO2 needed to react with ammonia to form carbonoyl phosphate |
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Term
| The products from deaminiation = carbon skeleton and alpha keto acid can be used for |
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Definition
-energy: when diet is low in cal
-to produce glucose: through TCA cycle
-to form ketone bodies:leucine and lysine
-fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis
- |
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Term
| catabolism produces ammonia in the muscle cell |
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Definition
muscle cells have no urea cycle
- use alanine-glucose cycle |
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Term
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Definition
ammonia is transferred to glutamc acid- carry to liver
or
the N from branched chain AA can transfer to AKF to make glutamate which can transfer N to pyruvate to form alanine which carries N to liver |
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Term
| protein quality is determined by _____ |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| glutamate + alpha keto acid <-> alpaha keto glutarate and alpha AA |
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Term
| reason of inconsitancies in studies |
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Definition
-conumption is too low to detect benefit
-incomplete dietary questioaires
-the thing may be a marker for something else that is the real factor |
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Term
| Relative Risk (RR) hoy do you calculate for Q5? |
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Definition
Q5 cancer rate/ Q1 cancer rate
(# of cases/person years of a group of interest ) / (# of cases / person years in reference group) |
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Term
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Definition
| # of cases/# of years of follow-up at that time (person years) |
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Term
nutrition label
Carbs get ____ lines for ________
Protein gets _____ lines for_______
and DV is reported for ______
Fat has ______ notations on the label for_______ |
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Definition
carbs get three lines for total carbs, sugars and fiber
protein gets one line for protein, DV is listed for toddlers and for products with nutrient claim
Fat has five notations- total, sat fat, trans, cholesterol, cals from fat |
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Term
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Definition
| straight carbon chains ending in a carboxylic acid |
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Term
monounsaturated and poly unsaturated
cis and trans |
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Definition
Mono- one double bond
poly- many double bonds
cis- H on same side
Trans- H on opposite sides |
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Term
| what are the two essential fatty acids |
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Definition
| linoleic and linolenic- both 18 carbons |
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Term
| what is the classification of steric acid |
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Definition
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Term
alpha linolenic acid is abreviated
Linoleic acid is abreviated |
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Definition
ALA (n-3) -> EPA
LA (n-6)-> AA
EPA and AA both deal with inflammation |
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Term
| triglycerides- 95% of fat |
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Definition
| 3 fatty acids attached to glycerol, a triacyl alcohol (bound by an ester bond) |
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Term
unsaturated FA are _____ at RT
sat fat is )_____ at RT |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| is the precursor to cholesterol and other things: bile acids, sex hormones, vit D |
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Term
| Fat is not______ and the blood is a _____ based system, so..... |
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Definition
| fat is not water soluble and the blood is a water based system, so the fat has to be packaged to travel in an aqueous enviornment |
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Term
| for fat to travel it needs- |
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Definition
long chain FA- get a protein coat, the new particle is called a chylomicron
-Short chain FA- carried by blood albumin through the protal vein |
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Term
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Definition
| varries triglycerides from the liver to tissue, once they lose the fat they become cholesterol RICH particles LDL |
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Term
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Definition
| low density lipoprotein which is cholesterol RICH that transports cholesterol to tissues- LDL level controls the number of LDL receptors |
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Term
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Definition
| mainly made by the liver- means to remove cholesterol to bring to the liver to be used as bile- competes with LDL for the same receptor |
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Term
| since ______ can be formed to glucose, diets rich in _____ can increase hapatice triglycerol syntheis and increase production of _____ after a meal |
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Definition
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Term
| in a highly fed state (fat cell) |
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Definition
| production tilts towards making fat, insulin stimulates the uptake of glucose and FAs |
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Term
| in a fasting state (fat cell) |
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Definition
| insulin disapears, lipolytic activity goes up in adipocyte. FFA bound to albumin go to the liver and are oxidized to acetly co A . |
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Term
| beta oxidation of fatty acids |
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Definition
| - cleavage of 2 carbon units from the carboxyl end of the fatty acid releasing these as acetyl CoA. (generates 5 ATP from NADH and FADH going to ETC) |
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Term
| what are the three types of ketone bodies |
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Definition
| acetoacetate, beta hydroxybutyarate and acetone |
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Term
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Definition
when you carbs are low- or blood glucose lis less stabe- the FAs are oxidized producing acetyl coA-
when carbs are low, krebs intermediates are low and acetyl co A builds up and makes ketone bodies |
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Term
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Definition
| are build on acetyl co A which are produced in the mitochondria. FA syntheis occurs in the cytoplasm, need to get acetyl co A into the cytoplasm |
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Term
| Getting acetyl co A into the cytoplasm |
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Definition
| condensing acetyl CoA and oxaloacetate to form citrate |
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Term
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Definition
uses malonly CoA and acetyl CoA as starters
-extension occurs adding 2 C which uses 2 NADPH |
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Term
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Definition
rate limiting step is HMG-CoA reductase:
3 acetyl coA --> mevalonate --->squalene ----> cholesterol |
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Term
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Definition
| is the rate limiting step in synthesis of cholesterol, is produced from leucine |
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Term
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Definition
| - high intake raises LDL and HDL |
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Term
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Definition
| lower LDL and small lowering effect on HDL |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| goal to decrease LDL and raise HDL |
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Definition
- reduce sat fat (palmitic) intake: decreases LDL receptor catabolism and raise LDL levels
-reduce poly unsat: n-6 linoleic lowers LDL and HDL
-increase mono (oleic): ; lower LDL |
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