Term
| Valuation: we first compute the value of each of the options and then make some sort of comparison of the different values |
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| Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) |
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| area of the brain associated in the representation of subjective valuation about objects/situations. activity relates to behavioural indicators of good value |
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mutliple single cell study; value representation in the frontal lobes of monkey brains
-electrodes to record cells in three regions: ACC, LPFC, OFC ; shown pictures related to cost, amount and probability of payoff
-there was no segregation between the representations of the 3 dmensions of value
-many cells ACC but also OFC responded to all three dimensions
-LPFC cells usually encoded just one decision variable (payoff or probability) |
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Dieters given a choice of tasty but unhealthy snack and a healthy but less tasty snack
-fMRI study
-vMPFC correlated with taste preference (regardless of whether the item was healthy)
-DLPFC was associated with the degree of control; greater activity in this area when ppt refused an unhealthy but preferred item compared to when the item was selected
-Greater activity in people who were judged to be better in exhibiting self control
-VMPFC associated with short term value but perhaps over evolution brain areas such as the DLPFC developed to modulate the primitive, primary value signals providing humans with teh ability to incorporate long term considerations into value representations |
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-2 different fractal pictures on screen and had to make choice between them
-Choice of the correct stimuli led to a monetary reward while incorrect stimuli led to a monteray loss
-Results showed that the OFC was activiated to monetary rewards (MOFC) and punishments (LOFC) during the task,
OFC response positively correlated with the magnitude of the reward or punishment |
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| CRITICISM OF VALUATION STUDIES: in real life we often must choose between an option with a known value and one or more options of unknown value e.g. foraging in animals |
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| Amygdala triggers emotional responses of primary rewards |
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| Somatic Marker Hypothesis |
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| Case of E.V.R (OFC damage); made poor decision in professional and social life; unable to prioritise solutions based on ability to solve problem |
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| people with OFC lesions have difficulty anticipating consequences of their actions and did not learn from their mistakes; IOWA gambling task developed to test whether damage to the OFC impaired decision making because emotion was actually needed to optimise it |
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| Criticism oF IGT: may be challenging to OFC patients because it requires them to change thier initial perceptions of potential for rewards in the risky decks --> inability to respond to changing patterns of reward and punishment |
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| OFC damage makes it difficult to reverse an association once it has been learned (monkey study) |
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| Emotion is the motivator for seeking reward and avoiding punishment (O'Doherty et al. 2011 support) |
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| CRITICISM OF IGT: is it really measuring testing the influence of somatic markers on decision making? performance could reflect poor memory, imbalance between reward and punishment systems or boredom during the task |
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| induced regret in healthy ppts ; the more the choice was regreted the higher the activity in the medial OFC ; feeling of regret strongly influences decision choice leading to more risk-averse choices over time |
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| OFC plays a strong role in applying social knowledge to our decisions in social settings |
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| if difficulties with social decisions of VMPFC patients were specific to decisions involving uncertainty or reflected a general difficulty in assessing the relative value of options |
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addressed the role of VMPFC in the interpretation of negatively valenced feedback during social decision making ; VMPFC patients judged negative scenarios more positively than controls
-when healthy adults judged negative social scenarios, greater activation in VMPFC than when judging positive scenarios (Area which is impaired in the other group) |
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| loss frame vs gain frame (but same outcome); misled by loss frame tended to show amygdala activation ; ppts making decisions based on money accounts activate their medial and lateral OFC |
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| Ultimatum game ; DLPFC and insula activity when unfair offers were considered |
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| Prisoner dilemma (when both ppts are interacting) ; cooperation --> nucleus accumbens, OFC and ACC |
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| Dual process theory (System 1 affective vs System 2 analytical) |
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| Evans and Stanovich (2013); Kahneman (2011) |
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| Amazon vouchers; mesolimbic activity only in the short term (now) choice while fronto parietal responds to all |
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| beads task JTC (Schizophrenia/psychosis) |
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| Phillips and Edwards (1966) |
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| Scizophrenic patients/psychosis tend to accept hypotheses based on less evidence than non-delusional people ; early decisions sometimes as early as the first bead |
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| JTC critical in encouraging delusion formation by contributing to erroneous inferences |
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| CRITICISM OF JTC: poor task comprehension |
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| psychosis patients showed greater OFC activation to novel pictures ; also showed greater connectivity between OFC, hippocampus and striatum (higher value? SYstem 1 overload? |
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| opposite effect in autism; dont have a tendency to JTC |
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| Brosnan, Chapman and Ashwin (2013) |
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| framing task with SCR; autistic individualsl less likely to show framing effect and showed reduced SCR responses ; suggests autistic people are not utilising System 1 in decision making |
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