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| Organization of the Nervous System |
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Definition
| The nervous is customarily divided into two parts; the peripheral nervous system (PNS) & central nervous system (CNS) |
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| Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) |
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Definition
the somatic nervous system, which interacts with the external environment & the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which participates in regulating the body’s internal environment
The somatic nervous system consists of afferent nerves or sensory nerves that convey messages from the sense organs to the CNS (incoming) & efferent nerves carrying motor signals form the SNC to the muscles (outgoing) |
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| The ANC has two divisions |
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| the sympathetic & parasympathetic nervous system. |
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| Central Nervous System (CNS) |
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Definition
First, as previously discusses, the neurons have some properties different from PNS neurons
CNS by the face that the body gives it extra protection
Coverings called meninges protect it, & it is surrounded by & floats int eh protective cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) |
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| The spinal nerves consists of both sensory & motor neurons |
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three menigeal membranes & completely surround the brain & spinal cord
The thick pia mater directly adheres to the surface of the central nervous system
The arachnoid membrane overlies the subarachnoide space, which contains cerebrospinal fluid
The dura mater is dense, inelastic, double-layered membrane that adheres to the inner surface of the skull
The space between the two dural layers is the epidural space
The space between the dura & the arachnoid is the subdural space. |
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Within the brain are four interconnected, fluid-filled cavities know as the ventricles
Within these ventricles the choroid plexus tissue secretes cerebrospinal fluid (CSF_, which flows from the upper to the lower ventricles.
In humans, approximately 450 ml (somewhat more than a 12 once soft drink can) of CSF is produced every day, mostly by the choroids plexus in the lateral ventricles
Ventricles accompanied by increased intercranial pressure results in a medical condition called hydrocephalus, which may be caused by imbalance in the rate of CSF production or absorption, or by blockage (such as by a tumor) of the circulation
The skull may actually swell |
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| You can subdivide the brain into three major divisions |
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Definition
| forebrain, of prosencephalon, the middle is the midbrain (mesencephalon, & the third is the hindbrain |
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(1) the telecephalon,
(2) the diencephalons,
(3) the mesencephalon,
(4) the metencephalon,
(5) the myelencephalon |
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| The four parts of the brain stem |
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Definition
the medualla oblongata (myelencephalon), the pons (metencephalon),
the structures of the midbrain (tectum & tgmentum)
the structures of the diencephalons (thalamus & hypothothalamus) |
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Here the tracts decussate, switching transmission of information form one side of the body to the contralateral side of the brain
From this point upward, the left side of the brain controls the right side of the body and vice versa |
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The reticular formation plays a role in non specific arousal, cortical activation & tone, & regulating sleep & wakefulness
The role of the RAS is sleep in wakefulness |
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| sensory, eye muscle, motor, eye movement, pupil contraction |
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| sensory, eye muscle, motor, eye movement |
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| sensory, skin of face, nose & mouth, motor, chewing & swallowing |
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| sensory, sensation from eye muscles, motor, eye movement |
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| sensory, sensation from eye muscles, motor, eye movement – sensory, taste, motor, facial expressions, smiling & crying |
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| sensory, hearing, equilibrium |
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| sensory, taste, motor, swallowing |
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| sensory, taste, & sensation fro neck, motor, control of larynx, parasympathetic nerves to heart & viscerea |
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| motor, movements of shoulder & head |
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| sensory, tongue, motor, movement of tongue |
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The hypothalamus plays an important role in regulating, activating, & integrating peripheral autonomic processes, endocrine activity, & somatic functions
These include such important functions as body temperature, food intake & development of secondary sex characteristics
The hypothalamus also plays a role in regulating levels of hormones affecting such functions as digestion, sexual arousal & circulation; & influences thirst, hunger & circadian rhythm |
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As such, the thalamus plays a key role in providing a complex “relay station” for all sensory systems except for olfaction that project to the cerebral hemispheres
The thalamus the hypothalamus together make up an important part of the activities of the limbic system
The thalamus in analogous to the concept of a large, busy, commuter train station
If makes preliminary classification, integrates information & “sends” it on to the cortex for further processing. |
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The cerebellum (Latin for “little brain”), surprisingly, contains nearly 50% of the neurons of the brain, even though it makes up only 10% of its weight
The cerebellum is phylogentically old & may have been the first brain structure to specialized in coordinating motor & sensory information
Observation patients with cerebellar disease makes evident that this is an important center for coordinating movement & postural adjustments
However, it now appears that the cerebellum stores memories for simple learned motor responses |
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Embedded deep within the cortex lie a group of symmetric subcortical gray-matter structures know collectively as the basal ganglia
Researches think the primary activity of the basal ganglia regulates voluntary movements, specifically related to planning & initiating motor behavior
Two relatively common basal ganglia disorders are Parkinson’s & Huntington’s disease |
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The primary structure of the lobe includes the medial cortex surrounding the corpus callosum, termed the cingulated gyrus, and the hippocampal formation.
The structures of the limbic system are often debated, but usually also include the fornix, amygdala, and septum
In humans, limbic system dysfunction had been associated with a variety of abnormalities, including emotional & behavioral problems |
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The primary structure of the lobe includes the medial cortex surrounding the corpus callosum, termed the cingulated gyrus, and the hippocampal formation.
The structures of the limbic system are often debated, but usually also include the fornix, amygdala, and septum
In humans, limbic system dysfunction had been associated with a variety of abnormalities, including emotional & behavioral problems |
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Definition
| Very deep grooves are termed fissures |
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| Four of the major divisions within each hemisphere |
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Definition
| frontal, parietal, temporal, & occipital lobes |
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| The frontal & parietal lobes are separated from the temporal lobe by the lateral fissure |
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the body’s window to the world
begins with the process of transduction |
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Definition
| An environmental stimulus activates a specific receptor cell creating energy, which is transduced into an electrical stimulus that is them carried to neurons for the brain to process |
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Definition
| the inability to recognize the form and/or function of objects & people, occurs in every sensory domain |
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| The somatosensory system begins at the level of receptors, of which five types are found on the skin & throughout the body |
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Definition
o Mechanical receptors
o Chemoreceptors
o Thermoreceptors
o Nocioreceptors
o Proprioceptors |
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| transduce energy from touch, vibration, & the stretching & bending of skin, muscle, internal organs, & blood vessels |
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| respond to various chemical on the surface of the skin & mucous membranes |
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| serves as monitors to alert the brain to damage or threat of damage |
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detect movement via degree of stretch, angle, & relative position of limbs.
Proprioceptors on hands help identify the shape of objects via touch |
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Taste & smell are evolutionary the oldest sensory systems
Taste & smell are also the least studied of the senses within neurospsychology & neuroscie |
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describes the tongue’s ability to discriminate four primary taste sensations; sweet, salty, sour & bitter
Some researchers have suggested a fifth taste, umani, from the Japanese word for “delicious”
Disorders in taste are rare in comparison to disorders in smell |
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Smell is the least well understood system
Certainly it is the oldest sensory system, evolutionary |
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| Visual processing via two types of photoreceptor cells |
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Definition
| The rods & cones transduce the electromagnetic wavelengths of light energy & exact properties of objects |
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Definition
which detect wavelength of color, are fewer, 7 center in the middle of the retina,
Them more numerous rods surround the cones & are attuned to the shades of gray we experience in low-light & nighttime conditions |
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| to the special case of inability to recognize people by their faces, even though the person can often recognize people by other means such as gait or tone of voice |
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Many people with this condition are aware that they can indeed see but have a problem correctly perceiving things
Apperceptive agnosics may appear to disregard or show no concern for their problem until neuropsychological testing reveals it to them
Apperceptive agnosics also have difficulty copying objects |
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Definition
| Associative agnosia is differentiated by behaviorally from apperceptive agnosia in that the primary difficulty is a loss of knowledge of the semantic meaning of objects |
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Definition
designed to detect sound frequency.
These hair-like receptor are located in the fluid of the long, coiled, snail-like cochlea of the inner ear
As the mechanical mechanisms of the middle ear respond to external sound waves they cause vibrations in the fluid of the inner ear, thus vibrating the hairs of the auditory receptors
These receptors synapes with the auditory nerve |
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| Damage tot he left hemisphere auditory processing areas results in the partial or total inability to decipher spoken words. This condition is known as receptive |
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Expressive speech links to the frontal operculum
Broca’s area play a role in the grammatical & syntactical arrangement of words |
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Definition
| Wernicke’s & Broca’s areas are linked by a hand of white matter fibers |
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Definition
a disturbance of language usage or comprehension
a disturbance connecting speaking to thinking & so is differentiated form purely mechanical disorders of speech such as dysarthria or speech apraxia
Aphasias are most frequently caused by vascular disorders such as stroke or by tumor or brain trauma |
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| characterized by fluent spontaneous speech with normal articulation & rhythm, or fluency in the repetition of words, phrases, or sentences |
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| difficulty in the flow of articulation |
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