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Neuropsychology Chapter 3 & 4
Neuropsych. Notes chap. 3 & 4
58
Psychology
Undergraduate 4
09/08/2007

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Term
Organization of the Nervous System
Definition
The nervous is customarily divided into two parts; the peripheral nervous system (PNS) & central nervous system (CNS)
Term
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Definition
the somatic nervous system, which interacts with the external environment & the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which participates in regulating the body’s internal environment

The somatic nervous system consists of afferent nerves or sensory nerves that convey messages from the sense organs to the CNS (incoming) & efferent nerves carrying motor signals form the SNC to the muscles (outgoing)
Term
The ANC has two divisions
Definition
the sympathetic & parasympathetic nervous system.
Term
The CNS includes
Definition
the brain & spinal cord.
Term
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Definition
First, as previously discusses, the neurons have some properties different from PNS neurons

CNS by the face that the body gives it extra protection

Coverings called meninges protect it, & it is surrounded by & floats int eh protective cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Term
Spinal Cord
Definition
The spinal nerves consists of both sensory & motor neurons
Term
Meninges
Definition
three menigeal membranes & completely surround the brain & spinal cord

The thick pia mater directly adheres to the surface of the central nervous system

The arachnoid membrane overlies the subarachnoide space, which contains cerebrospinal fluid

The dura mater is dense, inelastic, double-layered membrane that adheres to the inner surface of the skull

The space between the two dural layers is the epidural space

The space between the dura & the arachnoid is the subdural space.
Term
Ventricular System
Definition
Within the brain are four interconnected, fluid-filled cavities know as the ventricles

Within these ventricles the choroid plexus tissue secretes cerebrospinal fluid (CSF_, which flows from the upper to the lower ventricles.

In humans, approximately 450 ml (somewhat more than a 12 once soft drink can) of CSF is produced every day, mostly by the choroids plexus in the lateral ventricles

Ventricles accompanied by increased intercranial pressure results in a medical condition called hydrocephalus, which may be caused by imbalance in the rate of CSF production or absorption, or by blockage (such as by a tumor) of the circulation

The skull may actually swell
Term
You can subdivide the brain into three major divisions
Definition
forebrain, of prosencephalon, the middle is the midbrain (mesencephalon, & the third is the hindbrain
Term
five subdivisions
Definition
(1) the telecephalon,
(2) the diencephalons,
(3) the mesencephalon,
(4) the metencephalon,
(5) the myelencephalon
Term
The four parts of the brain stem
Definition
the medualla oblongata (myelencephalon), the pons (metencephalon),
the structures of the midbrain (tectum & tgmentum)
the structures of the diencephalons (thalamus & hypothothalamus)
Term
Lower Brain Stem
Definition
Here the tracts decussate, switching transmission of information form one side of the body to the contralateral side of the brain

From this point upward, the left side of the brain controls the right side of the body and vice versa
Term
Reticular Formation
Definition
The reticular formation plays a role in non specific arousal, cortical activation & tone, & regulating sleep & wakefulness

The role of the RAS is sleep in wakefulness
Term
Olfactory
Definition
sensory, smell
Term
Optic
Definition
sensory, vision
Term
Oculomotor
Definition
sensory, eye muscle, motor, eye movement, pupil contraction
Term
Trochlear
Definition
sensory, eye muscle, motor, eye movement
Term
Trigeminal
Definition
sensory, skin of face, nose & mouth, motor, chewing & swallowing
Term
Abducens
Definition
sensory, sensation from eye muscles, motor, eye movement
Term
Facial
Definition
sensory, sensation from eye muscles, motor, eye movement – sensory, taste, motor, facial expressions, smiling & crying
Term
Acoustic
Definition
sensory, hearing, equilibrium
Term
Glossopharyngeal
Definition
sensory, taste, motor, swallowing
Term
Vagus
Definition
sensory, taste, & sensation fro neck, motor, control of larynx, parasympathetic nerves to heart & viscerea
Term
Accessory
Definition
motor, movements of shoulder & head
Term
Hypoglossal
Definition
sensory, tongue, motor, movement of tongue
Term
Hypothalamus
Definition
The hypothalamus plays an important role in regulating, activating, & integrating peripheral autonomic processes, endocrine activity, & somatic functions

These include such important functions as body temperature, food intake & development of secondary sex characteristics

The hypothalamus also plays a role in regulating levels of hormones affecting such functions as digestion, sexual arousal & circulation; & influences thirst, hunger & circadian rhythm
Term
Thalamus
Definition
As such, the thalamus plays a key role in providing a complex “relay station” for all sensory systems except for olfaction that project to the cerebral hemispheres

The thalamus the hypothalamus together make up an important part of the activities of the limbic system

The thalamus in analogous to the concept of a large, busy, commuter train station

If makes preliminary classification, integrates information & “sends” it on to the cortex for further processing.
Term
Cerebellum
Definition
The cerebellum (Latin for “little brain”), surprisingly, contains nearly 50% of the neurons of the brain, even though it makes up only 10% of its weight

The cerebellum is phylogentically old & may have been the first brain structure to specialized in coordinating motor & sensory information

Observation patients with cerebellar disease makes evident that this is an important center for coordinating movement & postural adjustments

However, it now appears that the cerebellum stores memories for simple learned motor responses
Term
Basal Ganglia
Definition
Embedded deep within the cortex lie a group of symmetric subcortical gray-matter structures know collectively as the basal ganglia

Researches think the primary activity of the basal ganglia regulates voluntary movements, specifically related to planning & initiating motor behavior

Two relatively common basal ganglia disorders are Parkinson’s & Huntington’s disease
Term
Limbic System
Definition
The primary structure of the lobe includes the medial cortex surrounding the corpus callosum, termed the cingulated gyrus, and the hippocampal formation.

The structures of the limbic system are often debated, but usually also include the fornix, amygdala, and septum

In humans, limbic system dysfunction had been associated with a variety of abnormalities, including emotional & behavioral problems
Term
Limbic System
Definition
The primary structure of the lobe includes the medial cortex surrounding the corpus callosum, termed the cingulated gyrus, and the hippocampal formation.

The structures of the limbic system are often debated, but usually also include the fornix, amygdala, and septum

In humans, limbic system dysfunction had been associated with a variety of abnormalities, including emotional & behavioral problems
Term
sulci
Definition
Very deep grooves are termed fissures
Term
Four of the major divisions within each hemisphere
Definition
frontal, parietal, temporal, & occipital lobes
Term
central sulcus
Definition
The frontal & parietal lobes are separated from the temporal lobe by the lateral fissure
Term
Sensation
Definition
the body’s window to the world

begins with the process of transduction
Term
transduction
Definition
An environmental stimulus activates a specific receptor cell creating energy, which is transduced into an electrical stimulus that is them carried to neurons for the brain to process
Term
Agonsia
Definition
the inability to recognize the form and/or function of objects & people, occurs in every sensory domain
Term
The somatosensory system begins at the level of receptors, of which five types are found on the skin & throughout the body
Definition
o Mechanical receptors
o Chemoreceptors
o Thermoreceptors
o Nocioreceptors
o Proprioceptors
Term
Mechanical receptors
Definition
transduce energy from touch, vibration, & the stretching & bending of skin, muscle, internal organs, & blood vessels
Term
Chemoreceptors
Definition
respond to various chemical on the surface of the skin & mucous membranes
Term
Thermoreceptors
Definition
detect heat
Term
Nocioreceptors
Definition
serves as monitors to alert the brain to damage or threat of damage
Term
Proprioceptors
Definition
detect movement via degree of stretch, angle, & relative position of limbs.

Proprioceptors on hands help identify the shape of objects via touch
Term
Chemical Senses
Definition
Taste & smell are evolutionary the oldest sensory systems

Taste & smell are also the least studied of the senses within neurospsychology & neuroscie
Term
Taste
Definition
describes the tongue’s ability to discriminate four primary taste sensations; sweet, salty, sour & bitter

Some researchers have suggested a fifth taste, umani, from the Japanese word for “delicious”

Disorders in taste are rare in comparison to disorders in smell
Term
Smell
Definition
Smell is the least well understood system

Certainly it is the oldest sensory system, evolutionary
Term
Visual processing via two types of photoreceptor cells
Definition
The rods & cones transduce the electromagnetic wavelengths of light energy & exact properties of objects
Term
Cones
Definition
which detect wavelength of color, are fewer, 7 center in the middle of the retina,

Them more numerous rods surround the cones & are attuned to the shades of gray we experience in low-light & nighttime conditions
Term
prosopagnosia
Definition
to the special case of inability to recognize people by their faces, even though the person can often recognize people by other means such as gait or tone of voice
Term
Apperceptive Agnosia
Definition
Many people with this condition are aware that they can indeed see but have a problem correctly perceiving things

Apperceptive agnosics may appear to disregard or show no concern for their problem until neuropsychological testing reveals it to them

Apperceptive agnosics also have difficulty copying objects
Term
Associative Agnosia
Definition
Associative agnosia is differentiated by behaviorally from apperceptive agnosia in that the primary difficulty is a loss of knowledge of the semantic meaning of objects
Term
mechanical receptors
Definition
designed to detect sound frequency.

These hair-like receptor are located in the fluid of the long, coiled, snail-like cochlea of the inner ear

As the mechanical mechanisms of the middle ear respond to external sound waves they cause vibrations in the fluid of the inner ear, thus vibrating the hairs of the auditory receptors

These receptors synapes with the auditory nerve
Term
Wernicke’s aphasia
Definition
Damage tot he left hemisphere auditory processing areas results in the partial or total inability to decipher spoken words. This condition is known as receptive
Term
Broca’s area
Definition
Expressive speech links to the frontal operculum

Broca’s area play a role in the grammatical & syntactical arrangement of words
Term
arcuate fasciculus
Definition
Wernicke’s & Broca’s areas are linked by a hand of white matter fibers
Term
Aphasia
Definition
a disturbance of language usage or comprehension

a disturbance connecting speaking to thinking & so is differentiated form purely mechanical disorders of speech such as dysarthria or speech apraxia

Aphasias are most frequently caused by vascular disorders such as stroke or by tumor or brain trauma
Term
Fluent aphasia
Definition
characterized by fluent spontaneous speech with normal articulation & rhythm, or fluency in the repetition of words, phrases, or sentences
Term
Nonfluent aphasia
Definition
difficulty in the flow of articulation
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