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| cells in the nervous system that communicate with another to perfmorm information-processing tasks |
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| coordinates the information-processing tasks and keeps the cell alive |
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| recieve information from other neurons and relay it to the cell body |
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| transmits information to other neurons, muscles, or glands |
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| support cells found in the nervous system (have many more glial cells than neurons) |
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| insulating layers of fatty material around the axons of some neurons |
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myelin sheath deteriorates causing a slowdown in the transmission of information from one neuron to another
Multiple sclerosis |
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| the junction or region between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another |
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receive information from the external world and convey this information to the brain via the spinal cord
light, sound, touch, taste, and smell |
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| carry signals from the spinal cord to the muscles to produce movements |
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connect sensory neurons, motor neurons, or other interneurons
some interneurons carry information from sensory neurons into the nervous system, others carry info from the nervous system to motor neurons an dstill others perform a variety of information-processing fucntions withing the nervous system.
most abundant in nervous system |
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form of communication of info within and between neurons
conduction of an electric signal over relatively long distances within neurons, from the dendrites to the cell body, then throughout the axon |
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form of communiction of information within and between neurons
transmission of electric signals between neurons over the synapse |
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is the difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane
resting potential is about -70millibolts |
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an electric signal that is conducted along the length of a neuron's axon to the synapse
action potential occurs only when the electric shock reaches a certain level or "threshold:
action potential is "all or none" |
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a) electirc stimulation shuts down the K+ channels and open the Na+ channels, allowing Na+ to enter the axon. The increases of Na+ inside the neuron results in an action potential
b) in the refractory period after tha action potential, the channels return to their original state, allowig K+ to flow out of the axon. his leaves an abundance of K+ outside and Na+ inside the cell
c) A chemical pump then reverses the ion balance of ions by moving Na+ out of the axon and K+ into the axon. The neuron can now generate another action potential |
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| the synapse is the junction between the dendrites of one neuron and the axon or cell body of another. Notice that neurons do not actually touch one another, there is a small synaptic space between them across which information passes. |
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| Myelin and Nodes of Ranvier |
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| Myelin is formed by a type of glial cell, and it wraps around a neuron's axon to speed the transmission of the action potential along the lenth of the axon. Breaks in the myelin sheath are called the nosed of Ranvier. The electric impulse jumps from node to node, thereby speeding conduction of information down the axon |
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| the time following an action potential during which a new acion potential cannot be initiated |
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| the end of an axon which are knowblike structures that branch out from an axon |
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| chemicals that transmiit information across the synapse to a receiving reuron's dendrites |
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| parts of the cell membrane that receive neurotransmitters an initiate a new electric signal |
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| allows neurons to communicte with one another and ultimatley underlies your thoughts, emotions, and behaviors |
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| how neurotransmitters leave the synapse |
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first, reuptake: occurs when neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the terminal buttons of the presynaptic neuron's axon
second, neruotransmitters can be destroyed by enzymes in the synapse in a process called enzyme deactivation; specific ensymes break down specific neurotransmitters.
Finally, neurotransmitters can bind to the receptor sites called autorecepts on the presynaptic neurons. Autoreceptors detect howmuch of a reurotransmitter has been released into a synapse and signal the neuron to stop releasing the neurotransmitter when an excess is present |
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a neurotransmitter involved in a number of functions, including voluntary motor control
once of first neurotransmitters discovered
found in neurons of brain and in synapses where axons connect to muscles and body organs such as heart
activates muscles to initiate motor behacior, but it also contributes to the regulation of attention,learning, sleeping, dreaming, and memory
alzheimer's disease is associated with deterioration of acetylcholine producing neurons |
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a neurotransmitter that regulates motor behavior, motivation, pleasure, and emotional arousal.
plays a role in drug addiction
high levels of dopamine have been linked to schizophrenia
low levels have been linked to Parkinson's Disease. |
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a major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in information transmission throughout the brain
enhances the transmission of information.
too much glutamate can overstimulate the brain causing seizures |
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is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
too little GaBA, just like too much glutamate, can cause neurons to become overactive, causing seizures |
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a neurotransmitter that influences mood and arousal
low levels have been associated with mood disorders
involved in states of of bigilance, or heightened awareness of dangers |
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involved in the regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating and agressive behavior
low levels have been implicated in moood disorders |
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hemicals that act within the pain pathways and emotion centers of the brain
dulls pain and elevates mood
:runner's high" |
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| drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter |
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| drugs that block the function of a neurotransmitter |
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| the gap between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of another is called the |
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| the neurons that receive informtion from the external world and convey this info to the brain are called |
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| an action potential occurs when an electric charge causes |
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| sodium ions to flow into the neuron |
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| one way to clear up an overflow of neurotransmitters in the synapse is reavsortion of the excess by the terminal buttons of the presynaptic neurons axon. This process is called |
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| depression is often treated by a class of drugs that inhibits the reuptake of which neurotransmitter |
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| an interaction network of neurons that convey electrochemical information throughout the body |
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| Central nervos system (CNS) |
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composed of BRAIN and SPINAL CORRD
receives sensory information from the external world, processes and coordinates this information, send commands to the skeletal and muscular systems for action |
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| Peripheral nervous system (PNS) |
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connects the central nervous system to the body's organs and muscles
composed to two major subdivisions: the somatic and autonomic nervous systems |
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a set of nerves that conveys information into and out of the central nervous system
humans have conscious control over this system and use it to perceive, tihnk and coordinate behaviors |
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a set of nerves that carries involuntary and automatic commands that control blood vessels, body organs, and glands
works on its own to regulate bodily systems, largely outside conscious control
ANS has two major subdivisions: sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system |
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| sympathetic nervous system |
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| a set of nerves that prepares the body for action in threatening situations |
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| parasympathetic nervous system |
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| helps the body return to a normal resting state |
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simple pathways in the nervous system that rapidly generate muscle contractions
pain withdrawal reflex is from the spinal cord |
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an area of the brain that coordinates information coming into and out of the spinalcord
hindbrains are sometimes called the brain stem
controls: respiration, alertness, and motor skills |
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an extension of the spinal cord into the skull that coordinates heart rate, ciructulation and respiration
inside the medula is a msall cluster of neurons called the reticular formation
part of the hind brain |
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| neurons in the medulla which regulates sleep, wakefulness, and levels of arousal |
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a large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills
important for "fine-tuning" or smoothing our actions, rather than initiating them |
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part of the hindbrain that relays information from the cerabellum to the rest of the brain
pons mean "bridge"
actts as a "relay station" or bridge between the cerebellu and other structures in the brain |
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in midbrain
orients an organism in the environment |
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in midbrain
involved in movement and aroulsa also helps orient an organism toward sensory stimuli |
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midbrain is relatively small but it is a vventral location of neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin that are involved in arousal, mood, and motivation and the brain structures that relay on them
important for orientation and movement. it includes structures such as the tectum and tegmentum |
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| the forebrain, the highest level of the brain, is critical for complex cognitive, emotional, sensory, and motor function. The forebrain is divided into two parts the cerebral cortex and the underlying subcortical structures. These include the thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, amygdala, and hippocampus |
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| areas of the forebrain housed under the cerebral cortex near the very center of the brain |
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| the outermost layer of the brain |
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relays and filters information from the senses and transmits the information to the cerebral cortex
thalamus recieves inputs from all major senses except smell
thalamus filters information
stops sensations from coming through when you're sleeping |
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regulates body temp, hunger, thirst and sexual behavior.
four f's:
fighting
fleeing
feeding
and mating |
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| releases hormones that direct the function sof many other glands |
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| is critical for the creation and storage of new memories |
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plays a central role in many emotional processes and the basal ganglia
basal gangli is a set of structures that directs intentional movement |
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responsible for the most complex aspects of perception, emotion, movement and thought
like a mushroom cap
has a right and left hemisphere |
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bundles of axons that make possible communicationn between parallel areas of the cortex in each half
largest commissure is corpus callosum |
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| connects large areas of the cerebral cortex on each side of the brain and supports communication of information across the hemispheres. |
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located at back of cerebral cortex
processes visual information |
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located in front of occipital love
processes information about touch
contains somatosensory cortex |
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a strip of brain tissue running from top of brain down to sides
each part of somatosensory cortex maps onto a particular part of the body
if a body area is more sensitive, a larger part of the somatosensory cortex is devoted to it
ex part corresponding to lips and tongue is llarger than area corresponding to feet |
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loced on the lower side of each hemisphere
responsible foor hearing and language
contains primary auditory cortex
secondary areas of the temporal lobe then process the information into meaninfgul units, such as speech and words
aalso houses the visual association areas (help us recognize) |
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sits behind the forehead
specialized areas for movement abstract thinking, planning, memory and judgment
coordinates thought processes that help us manipulate information and retrieve memories, which we can use to plan our behaviors and interact socially with others. In short, the frontal cortex allows us to do the kind of thinking, imagining, planning, and anticipating that sets humans apart from most other species
contains motor cortex |
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| different parts of motor cortex correspond to different body parts. The motor cortex initiates voluntary movements and sends messages to the basal ganglio, cerebellum, and spinal cord |
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| help provide sense and meaning to information registered in the cortex |
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| when you feel threatened your _____ nervous system prepares you to either flight or run away |
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| the proper sequence of movement when we walk, run, ride a bike, or play the piano is controlled by |
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| Jim was in a bad car accident, and his occipital love was severely damaged. After the, he had difficulty recognizing |
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| According to the textbook, which part of the cerebral cortex sets humans apart from most othre species |
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unit of hereditary transmission
genes are built from strands of DNA and organized into chromosomes |
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strants od DNA wound around each other in a doub-helix configurations
humans have 23 pairs each |
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a measure of the variability of behavioral traits among individuals that can be accounted for by genetic factors
heritability is an abstract concept: tells us nothing about the specific genes that contribute to a trait
heritability is a population concept: it tells us nothing about an individual
heritability is dependent on the environment |
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| the first central nervous system appeared in |
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| which is tru of forebrain development in vertebrates? |
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| birds have almost no cerebral cortex at all |
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| Broca described a perso nwho had lost the capacity to produce spoken language but not the ability to understand language du to damage in a small area in left frontal lobe--> broca's area |
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| wernicke described a patient with an impairment in language comprehension but not the ability to produce speeech associated with damage to an area in the upper-left temporal lobe--> Wernicke's area |
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| traumatic accident allowed researcher to investigate the function of the frontal love and its connections with emotion centers in the subcotical structures. |
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| the electroencephalogram (EEG) records electrical activity in the brain. Many states of consciousness, such as wakefulness and stages of sleep are characterized by particule types of brainwaves |
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| Structural Imaging Techniques (CT and MRI) |
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| CT and MRI scans are used to provide info about the structure of the brain and can help spot tumors and other kinds of damage. Each scan shown here provides a snapshot of a single slice in the brain. Note that the MRI scan provides a clearer, high-resolution image than the CT scan |
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| Funtional-imaging techniques (PET fMRI) |
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| PET and fMRI scans provide information about the functions of the brain by revealing which brain areas become more or less active in different conditions. |
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| The earliest evidence that separate brain locations control speech comprehension and speech production was provided by |
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| Paul Broca an Carl Wernicke |
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| Split-brain studies have revealed that |
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| the two hemispheres perform different functions but can work together by means of the corpus callosum |
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| te activity of specific neurons in the brain can best be detected by means of |
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| inserting electrodes into brain cells |
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| researchers can observe relationships between energy consumption in certain brain areas and specific cognitive and behavioral events using which technique? |
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