Mendel outlined the segregation of traits

Miescher discovered a weak acid within the nuclei of white blood cells (this acid is now known as DNA)

The fusion of nuclei within gametes was observed

Fleming described chromosomes and chromosomal segregation (which was later found to be mitosis and meiosis)

Chromosomes were viewed as likely gene carriers

Protein was very diverse and present in chromosomes whereas DNA was also found in chromosomes but it wasn't as diverse as the proteins.

Griffith's experiment showed that something within dead S cells transformed living R cells into living S cells which went on to kill the mouse subject into which both types of cells had been injected

They discovered that by adding DNAase into the transformation process shown by Griffith that no S cells would be produced after mixing heat-killed S cells and living R cells

The experiment proved that a phosphorus backbone is used to link the sugars in DNA, not a sulfur-based backbone as some thought

There are 4 bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), Cytosine (C) and guanine (G). A and T go together and C and G go together. Any other combinations are incompatibile and will not bond correctly

DNA is read from the 5' end (with phosphate) to the 3' end (with -OH). If one strand appears to be going from the 5' end to the 3' end the other strand will be read in the opposite direction even though the bases match up heading in the same direction for each strand

One strand splits from the other and a mirroring strand is formed from free-floating DNA components in the nucleus. Each parent strand therefore becomes paired with a daughter strand

A mutation in the genetic code. Just how serious this mutation is depends on the placement of the mutation

Proteins control the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of cells. Proteins form the escence of cells and differentiate various forms of cells

Enzymes are important biological catalysts within various functions. Without enzymes much of the modern forms of life would not exist

He discovered that a defective enzyme was passed down through biological generations

Mutant spores could survive in complete media but not in minimal media (which contained the absolute basic nutrients). Since regular spores could survive in minimal media those that couldn't were tagged as mutant and kept for further investigation

Vitamins, amino acids and nucleic acid precursors. If any of these combinations produces growth results you procede with another round of testing for that specific group that gave positive results

Test each of the specific amino acids and see in which one of those it grows. If it grows in any of those you know that it needs that specific amino acid to grow

Test various precursors for arginine (or any sort of pre/postcursor for the amino acid that tested positive). From this information you can determine exactly where there is a genetic defect.

S1 will be in excess because of the buildup of it since some will attempt to react with enzyme A but this process won't go through but the negative feedback system will assume all attempts at processing have gone through. There will be no S2 nor S3 because of this defect.

DNA is transcribed into RNA which is then translated into proteins

The base Uracil is used instead of Thymine and a ribose sugar is used instead of a deoxyribose

DNA is read in the 5'-3' direction. The first strand of DNA (the one that gets made into proteins) goes from 5'-3' but its complimentary strand runs the opposite way when it is read (in the same 3D space as the 5'-3' primary strand the complimentary strand is 3'-5'). The resulting mRNA from the primary DNA strand is also 5'-3'

It contains anticodons which are opposite of those found on mRNA. They help to identify the codons that they go to in the event of a mutation or mistake in copying DNA

AUG within mRNA stands for "Start/Methionine" and UAA, UAG and UGA stand for "Stop"

A mutation refers to any sort of inheritable change within a gene

This refers to any mutation where the mutation does not change the produced protein (this could also happen within the area of genetic material that does not code for anything)

The resulting protein is affected and is not the same

It means that one gene can code for multiple proteins. Since a coding sequence can encounter a second start before encounter a stop multiple proteins can be created which partially share the same amino acids

It means all nuclear DNA contained within a cell

Paralogs are genes/proteins which originated from the same ancestor via gene differentiation

Orthologs are genes/proteins which are genes that are related by speciation, not necessarily a common ancestor

Offspring were thought to blend the traits of their parents. An example of this sort of modern stereotype can be found in the South Park episode "Goobacks" in which everyone from the future looks and talks exactly the same as one another due to the universal blending of cultures

Mendel proposed that both parents contribute very distinct traits. He proposed this idea after he analysed the ratios at which offspring were produced

Green peas have many observable traits and they also self-fertilize. Its scientific name is Pisum Sativum

True-breeding individuals are individuals who, when self-fertilized, produce offspring exactly like themselves

It means any sort of cross between 2 individuals of differing phenotypes

The dominant trait is the trait that is expressed in hybrids. This only applies for cases of complete dominance

Recessive traits are traits that are masked within hybrids in the case of complete dominance

It would result in a 1-2-1 ratio of XX, Xx and xx

The reproductive cells only have one copy of each respective chromosome so that there is not an overflow of DNA within the cell

It states that there's a 50% chance of a copy of each chromosome being in a gamete

Alleles are different versions of the same gene. These are caused by mutation and may or may not cause a negative effect within the organism

Unlike classic genetics which focused on physical traits modern genetics looks at both physical and molecular traits

The homo dom would move the least, the het would have 2 lines, one at the level of the homo dom and one at the homo rec level and the homo rec would move farthest away from the source of the DNA

You would pair a dominant phenotype (the exact genotype of which is unknown) with a recessive phenotype (whose genotype is exactly known)

9:3:3:1

Prob (A or B) = Prob A + Prob B. For example, for a single trait cross where the P generation are both heterozygous, to find out the rate of theoretical heterozygous offspring you take the probability of each heterozygous spot and add them together like so: 1/4 + 1/4 = 1/2

Prob (A and B) = Prob A x Prob B. For example, if you wanted to find the chances of getting a homozygous dominant offspring from heterozygous parents you would multiple the chance of getting the dominant allele from each parent which would be 1/2. The result would be Prob WW = ProbW from het parent A x ProbW from het parent B = 1/2 x 1/2 = 1/4