CNS - Oligodendrocytes

PNS - Schwann cells

• some families with 50% rate have chromosome 21 defect, same as down's, who tend to have more alzheimers
• Low ACh
• neurofilbrillary tangles surround cell nucleus, amyloid plaques accumulate, enveloping axons
• Treatments are CHOLINESTERASE INHIBITORS slow CCh enzyme; Memantine blocks exctotoxicity (cell death) so cells can stay alive
• Best to prevent through good CV health
• still not truly diagnosed till post mortem

Dura mater - 2 fused membranes except at dural sinuses

Arachnoid mater

Pia mater

tracts

sensory/afferent tracts enter in the back root

motor/efferent tracts exit from the front root

broca's area = MOTOR SPEECH AREA, usually in L frontal lobe

Wernicke's area = GENERAL INTERPRETIVE AREA, receives from sensory assn area

=MESENCEPHALON

relay of visual and auditory information (motor and sensory)

also relays some motor tracts

one

only

ought

to

take

a

fantastic

voyage

go

visit

stone

henge

1-Olfactory

2-Optic

3-Oculomotor

4-Trochler (motor eye)

5-Trigeminal (mixed facial sensation and jaw muscles)

6-Abducens

7-Facial (mixed taste and facial muscles/glans)

8-Vestibulocochlear

9-Glossopharyngeal (mixed throat sensory and motor)

10-Vagus (mixed internal organs)

11-Spinal Accessory (motor neck and back)

12-Hypoglossal (motor tongue)

8 cervical

12 thoracic

5 lumbar

5 sacral

1 coccygeal

c5-t1

posterior arm muscles

skin forearma and hands

c5-t1

forearm muscles

hand muscles and skin

c5-t1

forearm muscles; hand muscles and skin

spinal nerve from t2-t12

intercostal and abdominal muscles

trunk skin

The Golgi organ (also called Golgi tendon organ, tendon organ, neurotendinous organ or neurotendinous spindle), is a proprioceptive sensory receptor organ that is located at the insertion of skeletal muscle fibers into the tendons of skeletal muscle. It provides the sensory component of the tendon reflex.

sense pain

somatic respond to tissue damage - skin and skeletal muscle

visceral respond to excess stretchin and chemical changes from tissue damage

ORBICULARIS OCULI (closes)

LEVATOR PALEBRAE SUPERIORIS (opens)

3 pairs of antagonists:

superior/inferior rectus - rolls up/down

lateral/medial rectus - turns outwards/inwards

superior/inferior oblique - rotates counterclockwise/clockwise

occulomotor (controls 4 muscles)

trochlear (controls superior oblique)

abducens (controls lateral rectus)

=MACULA

center of retina where light it normally focused; only cones and vision is most accute here, in bright light.

of lens

Far - ciliary muscle relazes, flattening lens

Near - contracts, curving lens (can strain eye)

1 - next to choroid are the rods and cones (many more rods)

2- middle are bipolar cells

3- innermost - ganglion cells whose fibers become the optic nerve

=SPIRAL ORGAN

in cochler canal (1 of 3 canals in cochlea)

contains hair cells embedded in the TECTORIAL MEMBRANE

macula=fovea damaged (smoking, hypertension, light eyes also more succeptible) as DRY MD; leads to WET MD, meaning abnormal growth of new blood vessels around macula/fovea; Bleeding, leaking, and scarring from these blood vessels eventually cause irreversible damage to the photoreceptors and rapid vision loss if left untreated

central vision affected, at first blurry, then wavy lines, can be a black spot.  Doesn't affect peripheral vision.

from mechanoreceptors in the semicircular canals and the vestibule, are two types:

1- rotational

2-gravitational

conduction deafness - mechanical blockage like earwax, tumors, infections

sensineural - organ of corti/cochlea damaged, usually from repeated exposeure to loudness.  Can also occur from OTOTOXIC chemicals, as with chemotherapy and some antibiotics.

alpha -- glucagon

beta -- insulin

Edema secondary to hyper and hypo thyroidism.  Term often describes clincal syndrome of hypothyroidism like depression, mental slowness, weakness, bradycardia, fatigue, hypothermia, etc.  Mixedema can occur in hyperthyroidism as well.

does NOT = HYPOTHYROIDISM, but occurs because of it.  Mostly associated with hypothyroidism.

happens with diabetes, meaning urine excreted into urine because blood glucose levels are too high.  Leads to excessive water loss and dehydration.  Can also be cause by renal problems, but usually diabetes.

=SWEET URINE

can be used singly or in combination; vast majority use NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

1- HUMORAL CONTROL - concentrations in blood trigger release, e.g. blood sugar, or calcium levels

2- action of another hormone

3 -NEURAL CONTROL - from sensory information

are actually produced in the hypothalamus, and stored here:

1 - ADH=VASOPRESSIN - released when dehydrated to retain/reuptake water by kidneys; also causes vasoconstriction, increasing blood pressure ("vaso pressin = pressing on the vaso).  Blood pressure increases because dehydration causes blood pressure decrease.

2 - OXYTOCIN - uterine contraction at childbirth and milk let down (positive feedback)

THYROTROPIN RELEASING HORMONE - triggers release of TSH from anterior pituitary

PROLACTIN INHIBITING HORMONE - tells anterior pituitary to stop making prolactin

adrenocorticotropic hormone

secreted by the anterior pituitary

stimulates the adrenal cortex

secreted by anterior pituitary

are FSH and LH

which stimulate gonads

=SOMATOTROPIC HORMONE

protein synthesis stimulted, increased rate of entry of AAs into cell; of skeletal and muscle tissue

Mostly in childhood

stimulates metaboslism in all cells:

TRIIODOTHYRONINE = T3 (3 iodine atoms)

THYROXINE = T4 (4 iodine atoms)

secreted when calcium levels too high,cause calcium depostion into bone:

CALCITONIN

GLUCOCOTICOIDS - regulate metabolism to increase glucose levels, e.g. CORTISOL promotes mucle breakdoen and fat metabolism to increase glucose

and

MINERALOCORTICOIDS - regulate salt/water balance for blood volume/pressure, etc.  E.g. ALDOSTERONE targets the kidneys to absorb sodium and water raising blood pressure

GOITERS

1. Frontal lobe—conscious thought; damage can result in mood changes
2. Parietal lobe—plays important roles in integrating sensory information from various senses, and in the manipulation of objects; portions of the parietal lobe are involved with visuospatial processing
3. Occipital lobe—sense of sight; lesions can produce hallucinations
4. Temporal lobe—senses of smell and sound, as well as processing of complex stimuli like faces and scenes.

process by which glycogen of the liver and muscle is broken down into glucose.  Is affected by GLUCAGON and EPINEPHRINE

Glycogenolysis (also known as "Glycogenlysis") is the conversion of glycogen polymers to glucose monomers.

Gluconeogenesis (abbreviated GNG) is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids.

It is one of the two main mechanisms humans and many other animals use to keep blood glucose levels from dropping too low (hypoglycemia). The other means of maintaining blood glucose levels is through the degradation of glycogen (glycogenolysis). ^[1]

polydypsia

polyphagia

glucosuria

ketoacidosis