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| Ethical Dilemma (in research) |
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| A situation in which the rights of study participants are in direct conflict with requirements for a rigorous study. |
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| Principle of Beneficience |
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| Above all, do no harm; right to protection from harm and discomfort |
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| Principle of Respect for Human Dignity (2 rights) |
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Right to self-determination (absence of coercion)
Right to full disclosure (absence of deception or concealment) |
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Right to fair treatment
Right to privacy (confidentiality, anonymity)
Procedures for protecting study participants |
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means that participants: have adequate information about the research, can combreheand that information, and have free choice in deciding whether to participate in or withdraw from the study
Confidentiality procedures: anonymity - even researcher is unable to link participants to their data |
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| study participants who require special protections. Some (e.g. children) cannot make a trulty informed decision about voluntary participation. Others (e.g. pregnant women) are at higher-than-average risk. |
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| Groups considered vulnerable (6) |
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Definition
Children
Mentally/Emotionally disabled people
Severely ill or physically disabled people
Terminally ill people
Institutionalized people
Pregnant women
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| An enigmatic, perplexing, or troubling situation |
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| A statement articulating the research problem and making an argument to conduct a new study |
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| The researchers summary of the overall study goal; usually found at the end of the introduction |
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| The specific accomplishments to be achieved by conducting the study |
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| the specific queries the researcher wants to answer in addressing the research problem |
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| the researchers predictions about relationships among two or more variables |
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| Components of a problem statement (7) |
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| Identification of the problem, background, scope, consequences, knowledge, gaps and proposed solution |
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| Statement of purpose in Quantitative studies |
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| Identifies key study variables; identifies possible relaitonships among variables; indicates the population of interest; suffests, through the use of verbs, the nature of the inquiry; e.g., to test...,to compare...., to evaluate...) |
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| Statement of purpose in qualitative studies |
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| (identifies the central phenomenon; suggests the research tradition; indicates the group, community, or setting of interest; suggests, through use of verbs, the nature of the inquiry, e.g., to describe..., to discover....to explore...) |
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| Research questions in quantitative studies |
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| sometimes direct rewordings of statemtns of purpose, worded as questions; used to clarify or lend specificity to the purpose statement; typically pose queries about the relationships among variables) |
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| Research questions in qualitative studies |
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| research questions often pose queries linked to the research tradition (Grounded theory: process questions; phenomentology: meaning questions; and ethnography: cultural description questions) |
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| States an expectation, a predicted answer to the research question; should almost always involve two or more variables; suggests the predicted relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable. |
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| Expresses a predicted relationship between one independent variable and one dependent variable |
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| States a predicted relationship between two or more independent variables and/or two or more dependent variables |
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| Predicts the direction of a relationship |
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| Nondirectional hypothesis |
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| Predicts the existence of a relationship, not its direction |
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| States the actual prediction of a relationship |
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| Statistical/null hypothesis |
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| Expresses the absence of a relationship (used only in statistical testing); Ex: BMI is not affected by high caloric intake. |
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| Purposes of a literature review |
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Definition
Identify the current state of the science, that is, status of evidence base; determine gaps in our knowledge base; and assist with interpretation of findings)
Purpose for practicing nurses: acquire knowledge on a topic; evaluate current practices; develop evidence-based clinical protocols and interventions |
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| Types of Information for a Research Review |
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Definition
Principal review on primary sources (the actual research reports written by researchers who conducted the study)
Less reliance on secondary sources (summaries of studies by others) |
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| Search strategy to find relevant evidence |
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Definition
Search bibliographic databases via a computer
Use the ancestry approach ("footnote chasing") - use the bibliography of a recent relevant reference to find earlier related studies (ancestors).
Identify keywords: for quantitative studies, the keywords are typically the independent and dependent variables and, often, the population: e.g., IV = exercise, DV = obesity; for qualitative studies, the keywords are the central phenomenon of interest and the population; e.g., family caregiver burden.
Key databases for nurse researchers: CINAHL & Medline |
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| A theory that focuses on a specific aspect of human experience; most appropriate for nursing |
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| Deal with abstractions, assembled in a coherent scheme; do not have formal propositions about relaitonships among phenomena (theories do have formal propositions about relaitons, about how phenomena occur) |
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| The power of theories lies in the ablity to: |
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| capture the complexity of human nature by the richness of the operational definitions assoc. w/ the variables; minimize the number of words required to explain the phenomena and thereby eliminate semantic problems; prove conclusively that relaitonships exist among the phenomena studies; articulate the nature of the relationships among phenomena |
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| Commonalities - Theories and Conceptual Models |
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Definition
| Use concepts as building blocks; require conceptual definitions; can be represented in a schematic model; can be used to generate hypotheses; can serve as a stimulus to research |
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| 4 Concepts central to models of nursing |
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Definition
Human being
Environment
Health
Nursing |
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| Conceptual models of nursing that have been used in nursing research include: |
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Definition
Orem's self-care deficit Nursing Theory
Roy's Adaptation Model
Watson's Theory of Caring |
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| The use of Theories or Models in Quantitative Research |
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Definition
| testing a theory; testing a theory-based intervention; using a theory/model as an organizing or interpretive structure |
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| Key Features of Quantitative-Research Design: interventions |
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Definition
| Broad design options: experimental (intervention study; randomized control trial); quasi-experimental (intervention study/ controlled trial without randomization); nonexperimental (not an intervention study; observational study) |
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| Key features of Quantitative - Research design: comparisons |
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Definition
Some design options:
Within-subjects design: same people compared at different times or under different conditions
Between-subjects design: different people are compared (e.g. men and women) |
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| Other key features of quantitative - Research design: control over confounds: how will confounding variables be controlled? Which specific confounding variables will be controlled? |
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Masking/Blinding: from whom will critical information be withheld to avert bias?
Time frames: how often will data be collected? When relative to other events, will data be collected? |
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Many quantitative research questions are about causes and effects.
Research questions that seek causal relationships need to be addressed with appropriate designs.
Criteria for causality
Three key criteria for making causal inferences:
The cause must precede the ffect in time
There must be a demonstrated empirical relationship between the cause adn the effect. (effect size, statistical significance)
The relationship between the presumed cause and effect cannot be explained by a third variable. Another factor related to both the presumed cause and effect cannot be the "real" cause. |
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| Designs to support causal inferences |
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| Experimental designs offer the strongest evidence of whether a cause (an intervention) results in an effect (a desired outcome). |
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| The researcher does something to some subjects - introduces an intervention (treatment). |
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| Thre researcher introduces controls, including the use of a control group |
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| Characteristics of a true Experiment |
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Definition
| Randomization (also called random assignment): the researcher assigns subjects to groups at random; typical assignment is to an experimental group or a control group; the purpose is to make the groups equal with regard to all other factors except receipt of the intervention. |
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Posttest-only (or after-only) design & pretest-posttest (before-after) design
Outcome data collected both at baseline and after the intervention |
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| include an intervention; involve an intervention but lack either randomization or control group; may be easier and more practical than true experiments; but they make it more difficult to infer causality; usually there are several alternative rival hypotheses for results. |
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| Non-experimental research |
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| If there is no intervention, the study is nonexperimental (observational). |
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| A correlation is an association between variables and can be detected through statistical analysis. |
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| In a retrospective correlational design, an outcome in the present (e.g., depression) is linked to a hypothesized cause occurring in the past (e.g., having had a miscarriage); one retrospective design is a case-ctronl design in which "cases" (e.g., those with lung cancer) are compared to "controls" (e.g., those without lung cancer) on prior potential causes (e.g., smoking habits). |
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| In a prospective correlational design, a poential cause in the present (e.g., experiencing bs. not experiencing a miscarriage) is linked to a hypthesized later outcome (e.g., depression 6 months later); this is called a cohort study by medical researchers. Prospective designs are stronger than retrospective designs in supporting causal inferences - but neither is as strong as experimental designs. |
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| Not all research is cause probing; some research is descriptive (e.g., ascertaining the prevalence of a health problem); other research is descriptive correlational - the purppose is to describe whether variables are related, without ascribing a cause-and-effect connection. |
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| Data are collected at a single point in time. |
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| Data are collected two or more times over an extended period; longitudinal designs are better at showing patterns of change and at clarifying whether a cause occurred before an effect (outcome). |
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| Threats to statistical conclusion validity |
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Definition
| Low statistical power (e.g., sample too small); unreliable implementation of a treatment - low intervention fidelity |
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| biases arising from pre-existing differences between groups being compared; this is the single biggest threat to studies that do not use an experimental design. |
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| other events co-occurring with causal factor that could also affect outcomes. |
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| processes that result simply from the passage of time. |
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| Differential loss of participants from different groups |
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| Threats to external validity |
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| poor sampling strategies; expectancy effect (Hawthorne effect) makes effects observed in a study unlikely to be replicated in real life. |
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| Characteristics of Qualitative Research Design |
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Definition
| flexible, elastic, holistic; intense researcher involvement; emergent: ongoing analysis guiding design decisions; bricolage: merging various data collection strategies |
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| Advance Planning and Activities in Qualitative Studies |
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Definition
| Selecting a research tratition; selecting a study site; identifying gatekeeprs, gaining entree; identifying needed equipment for the field; analyzing personal biases |
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| Overview of Qualitative Research Traditions |
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Definition
| Antropology (Domain: culture), ethnography (domain: ethnoscience), Philosophy (Domain: lived experience), phenomenology- hermeneutics; psychology - behavior; ethology; ecological psychology; sociology - social settings; groung theory; ethnomethodology; sociolinguistics - communication; history - past events, conditions |
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| Describes and interprets a culture and cultural behavior; culture is the way a group of people live - the patterns of activity and symbolic structures (for example, thevalues and norms) that give such activity significance; relies on externsive, labor-intensive fieldwork; culture is inferred from the groups words, actions, and products; assumption; cultures guide the way people structure their experiences; seeks an emic perspective (insiders view) of the culture; relies on wide range of data sources (interviews, observations, documents; some may be quantitative); participant observation is a particularly important souce; product: an in-depth, holistic portrait of the culture under study |
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| Focuses on the description and interpretation of peoples lived experience; asks: what is the essence of a phenomenon as it is iexperience by people, and what does it mean?; Acknowledges peoples physical ties to their world: "Being in the world"; four key aspects of experience: lived space, lived body, lived time, lived human relation; main data source: in-depth conversations iwth a small number of participants who have experienced the phenomenon; human relation is characteristic of phenomenology in general. |
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| Focuses on the discovery of a basic social psychological problem that a defined group of people experience; elucidates social psychological processes and social structures; has a number of theoretical roots - e.g., symbolic interation; originally developed by sociologists Glaser and Strauss; Primary data sources: in-depth interviews with 20 to 40 people; may be supplemented with observations, written documents |
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| Not all qualitative studies are conducted within a disciplinary tradition. Examples include: case studies; these focus on a through descroption and explanation of a single case or small number of cases. Cases can be individuals, families, groups, organizations or communities |
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| Texts that provided detailed stories are sometimes analyzed through narrative analyses; there are numerous approaches to analyzing texts. |
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