Term
| Cancer is the __ cause of death in the US behind CV disease? |
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Definition
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Term
| Out of all the cancers, which is the most common one? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the three defective processes of cells that lead to cancer? |
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Definition
| Excessive proliferation, less differentiation, and decreased cell death |
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Term
| How does the body normal control proliferation? |
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Definition
| Contact inhibition, activation only when needed, knowing whether to proliferate or not (if the cell type is able to proliferate) |
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Term
| What cell types do proliferate rapidly and which ones don't? |
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Definition
| Do: bone marrow and epithelial cells; don't: myocardium, nerve |
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Term
| What is the function of telomeres? |
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Definition
| Enzymes that keep the ends of DNA segments from dying off; potentially can cause unlimited life of the DNA |
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Term
| What is the relationship between cancer and telomeres? |
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Definition
| Cancer cells have a gene that causes telomeres to live continuously, thus enabling cancer cells to live continuosly as well |
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Term
| What are the different theories associated with cancer cell proliferation? |
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Definition
| Stem cell theory, increase in telomeres, passing on of BRCA 1 and 2, defect in p53 gene, defect in Rb gene, proto-oncogenes to oncogenes, and inhibition of tumor suppresor genes |
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Term
| What is the stem cell theory? |
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Definition
| That infected stem cells will not die off normally; they will recognize the damage and repair itself and proliferate and pass on their mutations to daughter cells |
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Term
| What is the function of a proto-oncogene? |
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Definition
| A gene that regulates cellular growth and differentiation |
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Term
| What happens when a proto-oncogene becomes an oncogene? |
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Definition
| They are unable to effectively regulate cell growth so there is increased cell proliferation, decreased differentiation, and decreased cell death |
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Term
| What is the function of tumor suppressor genes? |
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Definition
| Aids in controlling cellular growth |
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Term
| What are the some of the things that cause a change from a proto-oncogene to an oncogene? |
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Definition
| Retrovirus, mutation, DNA in proto-oncogene becomes damaged, error in chromosome replication |
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Term
| What is the normal function of the p53 gene and how does cancer change that? |
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Definition
| Normally, the p53 gene enables cell recylcling (damaged cells die) but a defect in p53 leads to damaged cells replicating and creating more mutated, damaged cells |
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Term
| What is the normal function of the rb gene and how does cancer change that? |
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Definition
| The rb gene acts as a master brake for cell proliferation; a defect in this gene leads to excessive and unlimited cellular proliferation |
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Term
| What is BRCA 1 and BRCA 2 and what do they cause? |
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Definition
| Genes that causes cancer; BRCA 1 causes breast cancer in women and testicular cancer in men while BRCA 2 causes breast cancer in women and men |
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Term
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Definition
| The characteristics and functions of a cell that make it unique from other cells |
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Term
| Are cancer cells less differentiated or more differentiated? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the tumor immune surveillance theory? |
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Definition
| Theory that the immune system patrols the body looking for cancer cells because of the antigens that cancer cells must express |
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Term
| What are the antigens on cancer cells surfaces called? |
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Definition
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Term
| How do some cancer cells evade the tumor survelliance theory? |
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Definition
| 1) Cancer cells mask their tumor specific antigens (via interleukins, growth factors), 2) secrete immunosupressive substances, 3) express tumor specific antigens in small amounts, 4) antibody-blocking factors, 5) and release of suppressor T-cells |
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Term
| What are the three stages of cancer development? |
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Definition
| Initiaition, promotion, and progression |
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Term
| What happens during initiation? |
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Definition
| Proto-onocogenes are changed into oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes function is inhibited |
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Term
| What happens during the promotion stage? |
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Definition
| Mutated cells proliferate and the mutations have taken effect |
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Term
| What are some risk factors that increase the promotion stage? |
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Definition
| Obesity, smoking, alcohol, severe stress, fatty diet, hormones, nutrition, radiation, viruses, |
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Term
| What happens during the progression stage of cancer? |
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Definition
| The mutant cells begin to exhibit malignant behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| Spread from initial site to distant site |
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Term
| How do cancer cells move from their site of origin to distant sites? |
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Definition
| Some organs have "signals" that attract certain cancer cells to the site and the cancer cells must secrete enzymes that destroy the basement membrane that binds them to the surface |
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Term
| What are some of the symptoms of cancer? |
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Definition
| Pain (due to obstuction, pressure, invasion into structure, stretching of organs, inflammation, tissue destruction), fatigue, cachexia (generalized weakness), altered metabolism and appetite, anemia, weight loss |
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Term
| What are some characteristics of benign tumors? |
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Definition
| Well differentiated, slow growth, no metastasis, encapsulated, none to little necrosis, slightly vascular |
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Term
| What are some characteristics of malignant tumors? |
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Definition
| Metastasis, little differentiation, not encapsulated, vasculature growth, grows quickly, recurrence |
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Term
| What are the stages of the T of the TNM system? |
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Definition
T0: no evidence of primar tumor
T1: tumor is 2 cm or less
T2: tumor is 2 cm to 4 cm
T3: tumor is greater than 4 cm |
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Term
| What are the stages of the N of the TNM system? |
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Definition
N0: no nodes are metasticized
N1 or N2: metasticized to lymph nodes on the same side of the body; some N2s are on both sides of the person's body |
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Term
| What are the stages of the M of the TNM system? |
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Definition
M0: no metastasis
M1: distant metastasis |
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Term
| What would T2 N1 M0 mean? |
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Definition
| Tumor is present at 2 cm to 4 cm, it has spread to lymph nodes on the same side of the body, and it hasn't metasticized elsewhere |
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Term
| What are the different grading of tumors? |
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Definition
Grade 1: well differentiated with minimal deviation
Grade 2: moderately well differentiated
Grade 3: extensive differentiation
Grade 4: totally differentiated with no resmeblance to original tissue |
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Term
| What is the clinical staging of cancer? |
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Definition
Stage 0: features of cancer cells but no invasion
Stage 1: localized tumor growth
Stage 2: limited local spread
Stage 3: extensive local and regional spread
Stage 4: metastasis |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| What is the function of granulocytes? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the function of neutrophils and what is the percentage? |
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Definition
| Guard against infection by degrading foreign materials; make up 55-65% |
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Term
| What is the function of eosinophils and what is the percentage? |
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Definition
| They increase in number during allergic reactions and infections; 1 to 3% |
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Term
| What is the function of basophils and what is their percentage? |
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Definition
| Contains heparin, serotonin, and histamine; 0.3 to 0.5% |
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Term
| What is the function of monocytes and what is their percentage? |
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Definition
| Present antigens to T cells; 3 to 8% |
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Term
| What is the function of lymphcytes and what is their percentage? |
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Definition
| Destroy and protect against antigens; 20 to 30% |
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Term
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Definition
| Formation of a blood clot |
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Term
| What makes up a blood clot? |
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Definition
| Protein strands called fibrin |
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Term
| What is thrombocytopenia? |
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Definition
| A platelet count below 100,000; 20,000 is severe |
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Term
| What are the causes of thrombocytopenia? |
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Definition
| Decreased number of platelets, increased storage of platelets (in the spleen), and increased destruction of platelets (by viruses, antibodies, etc.) |
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Term
| What are the symptoms of thrombocytopenia? |
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Definition
| Excessive bleeding, petechiae, bruising, hematoma (raised bruise), hemoarthrosis (bleeding into joints, which causes swelling) |
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Term
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Definition
| Excessive amount of platelets in the blood (more than one million) |
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Term
| What are the causes of thrombocytosis? |
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Definition
| Stress, exercise, hemorrhage, inflammatory disease, infection |
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Term
| What happens in the body that allows thrombocytosis to happen? |
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Definition
| Preformed platelets are released (primary) and platelet production increases (secondary) |
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Term
| What are the symptoms of thrombocytosis? |
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Definition
| Excessive bleeding, hemoarthrosis, pulmonary embolism due to blood clots, and ischemia |
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Term
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Definition
| A deficiency in the number of erythrocytes and quantity of hemoglobin |
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Term
| What are the causes of anemia? |
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Definition
| Decreased erythrocyte production (due to decreased hemoglobin synthesis i.e. iron deficiency, folic acid deficiency), blood loss, increased erythrocyte destruction (i.e. sickle cell) |
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Term
| How does having anemia relate to oxygen? |
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Definition
| It reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood |
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Term
| What are some of the compensatory mechanisms to deal with anemia? |
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Definition
| Shift of oxygen-hemoglobin curve to the right (release of oxygen from hemoglobin to body), increased respirations (stimulate blood flow), increased cardiac output, increased plasma volume (ECF fluid is pulled into blood stream) |
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Term
| What is macrocytic-normochromic anemia? |
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Definition
| Large, abnormally-shaped erythrocytes but normal hemoglobin content |
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Term
| What are some examples of macrocytic-normochromic anemia? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is microcytic-hypochromic anemia? |
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Definition
| Small, abnormally-shaped erythrocytes with decreased hemoglobin concentration |
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Term
| What are some examples of microcytic-hypochromic anemia? |
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Definition
| Iron deficiency, chronic blood loss, thalassemia |
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Term
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Definition
| An inherited disorder that results in RBC destruction |
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Term
| What is normocytic-normochromic anemia? |
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Definition
| Destruction or depletion of normal erythroblasts |
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Term
| What are some examples of normocytic-normochromic anemia? |
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Definition
| Sickle-cell anemia, blood loss |
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Term
| What is pernicious anemia? |
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Definition
| Malabsorption of B12/folate |
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Term
| What is the defining characteristic of sickle-cell anemia? |
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Definition
| Sickle-shaped RBC due to a genetically defect of hemoglobin synthesis |
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Term
| What is a trigger for sickling episodes? |
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Definition
| Hypoxia, infections, stress, surgery, and dehydration |
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Term
| What causes pernicious anemia? |
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Definition
| Genetics or impaired production of intrinsic factor |
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Term
| What is the pathophysiology for pernicious anemia? |
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Definition
| Lack of intrinsic factor/genetics > impaired B12 absorption > disordered nucleic acid metabolism > megaloblastic dysplasia (abnormally large RBCs) |
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Term
| What are the symptoms of pernicious anemia? |
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Definition
| Dementia, cognitive dysfunction, hallucinations, spasms, irritability, altered sensations, beefy red tongue |
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Term
| What are the symptoms of iron deficiency anemia? |
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Definition
| Pallor, weakness, fatigue, malaise, dyspnea, palpitations, irritability, inflammation of the lips, heart murmurs, headaches, pica |
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Term
| What can acute blood loss from trauma cause? |
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Definition
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Term
| What can happen if there is chronic blood loss? |
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Definition
| Iron deficiency and RBCs have less hemoglobin |
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Term
| What is the pathophysiology for thalassemia (disorder of hemoglobin synthesis which leads to RBCs being destroyed)? |
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Definition
| Defect in hemoglobin > decreased hemoglobin synthesis > damage to cell membranes > premature cell destruction > decrease in RBCs > anemia |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| What are the symptoms of thalassemia (abnormal hemoglobin synthesis)? |
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Definition
| Iron retention, normal RBCs but early destruction, presence of reticulocytes in blood |
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Term
| What are symptoms of sickle-cell anemia? |
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Definition
| Sudden pooling of blood in the liver and spleen (organ failure), pain, sluggish blood flow (which can cause an obstruction in blood flow), increased billirubin |
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Term
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Definition
| A stem cell disorder, which results in a reduction of bone marrow tissue, fatty marrow replacement, and pantocytopenia |
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Term
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Definition
| Decrease in RBCs, WBCs, and platelets |
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Term
| What are the two causes of aplastic anemia? |
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Definition
| Acquired (i.e. viruses, chemical agents, etc.) and inherited |
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Term
| What are general anemia symptoms? |
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Definition
| Fatigue, tachycardia, shortness of breath, headache, dizziness, pale skin, cramps |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| What are the three types of polycythemia? |
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Definition
| Polycythemia vera, secondary polycythemia, and relative polycythemia |
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Term
| What is primary polycythemia vera? |
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Definition
| A condition characterized by a high number of RBCs due to increased production |
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Term
| What are the symptoms of primary polycythemia vera? |
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Definition
| Increased RBC, increased hemoglobin, increased hematocrit, increased blood volume, increased viscosity, increased clotting, acidosis, increased uric acid levels (due to excessive cell proliferation), decreased cerebral blood flow, headache, venous stasis, sluggish blood flow, cyanosis |
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Term
| What is secondary polycythemia? |
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Definition
| Increase in RBCs due to tissue hypoxia (i.e. high altitudes or lung disease) |
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Term
| What is relative polycythemia? |
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Definition
| Increase in RBCs because of a loss of body fluids due to dehydration or stress |
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Term
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Definition
| Cancer of the bone marrow stem cells |
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Term
| What are some of the risk factors for leukemia? |
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Definition
| Viruses, bone marrow damage due to radiation, genetics |
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Term
| What are the two ways that leukemias are classified? |
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Definition
| How fast the disease progresses and the dominant cell type |
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Term
| What is acute and chronic lymphblastic leukemia? |
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Definition
| An excess of defective lymphocytes, particularly B cells |
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Term
| What are the symptoms of acute and chronic lymphoblastic leukemia? |
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Definition
| Decreased RBCs, decreased platelets, changes in WBCs, pallor, fatigue, anemia, fever, infection, weight loss, headaches, seizure, coma |
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Term
| Out of acute and chronic lymphoblastic leukemia, which is seen mostly in children and which is seen mostly in adults? |
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Definition
| ALL: children; CLL: adults |
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Term
| What is acute and chronic myeloctic leukemia? |
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Definition
| An increase in the number of defective myelocytes, particularly the Philedalphia chromosome |
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