when you hear two tones with a frequency ratio of 2:1 or 1:2.

or

a collection of pitches.  

characteristics that define where a sound is coming from;

that which distinguishes two instruments playing the same note.

1. LOUDNESS

2. PITCH

3. CONTOUR

4. DURATION

5. TEMPO

6. TIMBRE

7. SPATIAL LOCATION

8. REVERBERATION 

the amplitude of a tone; volume control

(measured in dB)

infants and adults have this.

being able to distinguish easliy between a pair of tones an octave apart and a pair of tones not quite an octave apart 

adults and infants have this.

tones with different harmonic structure have the same pitch as long as their fundamental frequencies are the same. 

H: hypothalamus

V: ventral tegmented area

N: nucleas accumbens  

these regions modulate DOPAMINE (the feel good hormone); and are activated during pleasurable activities  

-in the PREFRONTAL cortex;

the PREDICTION center of our brain

-relevant to the question "could musical reward be related to prediction processes?) 

the idea that in the auditory cortex, pitch is laid out. recall the tontopic homunculus.

-relevant to discussion of TIMBRE and timbre maps 

an example of auditory illusion in music.

- melody pops out when the notes are close enough together in TIME -the perceptual system HOLDS the notes together. the melody is lost when the notes are TOO far apart in time  

a mental representation or framework created from experience. it is used to guide a response

-the more aspects of the schema are fulfilled, teh closer the situation is to the ideal/represented schema  

-electroencephalogram

-measures ELECTRICAL CURRENTS/BRAIN ACTIVITY of the brain.

-records firings of LARGE groups of neurons (not individual neurons)  

functional magnetic resonance imaging machine-uses the METALLIC PROPERTIES of HEMOGLOBIN to trace BLOOD FLOW in the brain.

-through this we can see which areas of the brain are activated when listening to music.  

our memory system stores info about the relations b/w objects and ideas, but not necessarily details about the object themselves

-theory ignores IRRELEVANT details, while preserving the "gist"  

-denounced idea that we can define a category

-category membership is determined by a family ressemblance , which relies on a list of features that may or may not be present (ex. we call something a game if it resembles other things we have previously called games) 

appearance-reality problems

1. objects though in presentation may be similar, are inherently different

2. object though in presentatino may be different are inherently identical

3. objects though different in presentation are of  the same natural kind  

-prototypes; the "best" category member

-category membership can be thought of as a question of degree , with some tokens being 'better' exemplars than others  

you can't find a prototype for a wide and broad category because the members vary ; ex. what's the prototype of a "tool"? (ambiguous); contextual info that prototype theory doesn't account for

-we form contextual categories not perceptual categories 

-social, clinical, cognitive and developmental psych

-also neuroscince and genetics  

we prefer something in the middle, not the pole.

-if we have low pitch on one en and high pithc on the other, we prefer pitches that fall in between. as we deviate from the middle, our liking decreases

-this is the same for FAMILIARITY (usual) and NOVEL(unusual)  

A=A

if someone likes a particular song, they should like all versions of that song. BUT this falls apart because one person may like an original but despise a remake 

-crucial to understanding of music

-percieves TIMING

-it has been evolutaionary benefical to relate movement to emotional activities 

-has an important role in EMOTION 

similar to a startle resonse and to the auditory system's sensitivity to change

-if your refrigerator has a hum, you get so used ot it that you no longer notice it

-since teh CEREBELLUM acts as a timekeeper, when it's damaged, HABITUTAION may disappear  

caused during PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT when a chromosome is missing (similar to Down's).

individual with W.S. have defects in their cerebellum and are consquently unusually outgoing and pleasant.

someone who has reached a high degree of accomplishment relative to other people

-expertise is a social judgement

-10 000 hours of practice is required to achieve the level of mastery associationed with being an expert 

talk shows claimed that listening to mozart 10 miutes a day makes you smarter.

-there is thought that music makes you smarter on SPATIAL ABILITY TASKS  

-speaking to infants with a slower tempo, an extended PITCH RANGE and higher overall PITCH LEVEL

-infants notice a change in CONTOUR and thus udnerstand to some extent, what is being said 

threshold in which song is too complex or too simple, and we dislike the song more readily after this point.

likability: y-axis

 complexity is on teh x-axis 

-proposed that once in a while we find a behaviour or attribute in an organism that lacks any clear evolutionary basis; this occures when evolutionar forices propagte an adaptation for a particular reson and soemthng else comes along with it.

-PINKER ARGUED THAT LANGUAGE IS AN ADAPTATION AND MUSIC IS ITS SPANDREL 

-Gould

-a by-product of an architects' design. birds evolved feathres to keep warm but then used them to fly

neurons that fire both when performing an action and when OBSERVING tohers performing that action.

-purpose is to train and prepare the organism to make movements it has not made before  

formal devices/logic symbols possess an advantage over their natural counterparts (expressions such as "and" or "the") 

-any meaning in language which is not conveyed by the fromal devices yet is expressed in the natural counterparts is not acceptable and not intelligible  

each beam of light from a hologram is needed to complete the image.

-memory is like a hologram

-every neuron in the brain contains every memory in the brain. a sufficient number of neurons must be activated to recall a memory  

noted label presented at time of encoding influenced recall

-subjects were lated asked to draw the stimulus figures based on recall. the info they were given during the initial time of exposure influenced the subjects' recall ability  

created "droodles"

-when trying to recall figures, group2, whom recieved the DESCRIPTIVE words, were better at recalling the figures than group 1 

-eye-witness testimony

-suggestibility; HOW she asked the questions influenced the response  

primacy: you remember the first word in a list of words; recency; you remember the last word in a list of words

-remember the PRIMACY effect has a greater effect than the recency effect on memory  

office study

-relevant to "schemas"

-people tended to remember seeing things that are NORAMLLY in offices, but which were not actually present in the study  

penny study

-found that students were unable to detect slightly abnormal pennies; the details are not mandaotry for memorizing a penn  

-homeowners and burglars

-memory of event depended on which perspective they took

-CONTEXT EFFECTS IN MEMORY/CODING 

1. posner and keele

2. loftus

3. gist memory

4. Nickerson & Adams  

-1. flashbulb memories ; accurate memories of large scale events

2. penfield (been debunked)

3. Magnussen: discovered that eople are just as good at detecting a difference in two pictures back to back as they are if they see them a week apart  

-Hintzman

-everything you experience lays down a TRACE in memory. one trace isn't enough to remember a small detail, but if you experience the same detail enough, then you'll ahve enough traces in memory to remember it fairly accurately  

1. i could win some money

2. i need to limit my losses

3. i need to save face and punish my opponent

GENDER OF OPPONENT

1. man vs. man; out-compete

2. woman vs woman: limit losses, one will stop early

3.  man vs. woman; man will let woman win

regarding:

1. outcome

2. quality of info

2. quantity of info

note: there is also a level of REGRET regarding social comparison and saving face 

-restaurant example of one-sided evidence of what your experience in a certain place is 

-regarding d-making

-we tend to base estimates and decisions on known anchors or familiar, suggested positions and ADJUST RELATIVE to this point (note: if an arbitrary number is present, people will use this number as an anchor to make their judgements)  

we tend not to give enough credit to the power of the SITUATION people are in when tyring to explain their behaviour (accredit it to their internal personality traits )

-we attribute attitudes to a BEHAVIOUR factor OR

-we attribute people's attitudes to a situational factor

-related to fundamental attribution error ; study designed to make host look smart, contestant foolish

results:

-observers rated questioner in the 80th percentile of feneral knowledge, but the contestand below average (ess than 50%)  

-contestant rated questioner in teh 70th perceptil and himself in teh 40th because he believed audience knew the answers better than he

note: questioners role reveals NO ignorance  

-related to d-making

-additional variables added to the equation as long as they add something to its overall predictive quality or explanatory power

ex. we assess which factors are important or not in determining our total understanding  

analysis invovles making a decision on the bases of a set of cues or attributes

-ex. radiologists sorts x-rays into benign or malignant  

-the diagnostic meaning of one cue depends upon the meaning of other cues

ex. the tone of voice makes me think not suicidal unless the call comes in teh early hours of the morning  

-perception of the nature of an event after it has happened (people exaggerate in hindisght what they new in forestight; hindsight bias)

-they view things as "Relatively inevitable"

-believe others should have been able to better-predict outcomes than was actually the case/possible  

-stepwise regression

-clinical judgment

-configurale judgment  

-a statistical procedure used to describe the occurence of unlikely events in a large number of independent trials

-experts see "randomness," threatened individuals see "imagined order"

-given a set of events and a sufficiently large set of possible explanatory factors, one can always derive explanations to any desired degree

-overfitting theory is teid to a type of correlational overkill bias 

-a subjective statement usually a prediction that is NOT the product of an experiment (ex. think it'll rain, so you pack an umbrella),

"it is LIKELY that she's an engineer, it is LIKELY that my VCR will break)  

-to speak about the probability of a non-repeatable event doesn't make much sense. what we're really doing is making a statement of confidence in our prediction  

-it is the probability of the event times the outcomes, summed across all outcomes

-in a bet: is the amount of money you stand to win (in the long run)  

conjunction of two probabilities must be LESS THAN OR EQUAL to the SMALLER of the two properties

-the probability of a conjunction can bever be greater than the probability of one of its component events 

created a study in which subjects had to consider an office that has 70% engineers and 30% lawyers

-base rate gives the answer of 70% 

1. representativeness

2. availability

3. adjustment from an anchor  

probabilites are evaluated by the degree to which A resembles B.

-when A is highly rep. of B, the probability that A ORIGINATES from B is high.

PROBLEM: similarity is often identified in teh exact same way as "probability". similarity is NOT influenced by factors that should influence probability  

1. memory (for paritcular domain of interest)

4. physical configuration (ex. oscar peterson had huge hands which helped him excel at piano, or height is a predisposition to bball; pysical config. can help but not guarantee success

3. attention: to the domain for long enough time

4. will power and belief in self (believe that practice will pay off to their performance)

5. multiple failures (people at top of field have more failures than those at bottom; failure percieved as a lesson)  

-relevant to "transfer of skill" in the topic of "Expertise"

-did a study on skill transfer regarding a mnemonist

-couldn't remember letters but could remember 81 random digits

-therefore skill transfer is minimal if not non-existent  

brazilian children can sell 5 lemons at 35 c each, yet in the classroom they are unable to determine that 5 x 35 is?  no skill transfer

-learning curve is minimal if an expert transfers to a similar domain  

-tested acquisition of reading skills ; subjects presented with upside down, mirror, reversed image sentences

-through practice we can read these different sentences almost as readily and as quickly as normal test (power law reading) 

-relevant to "expertise"

-Koler's study of reading

-subjects came back a year later. started off shaky, but after some practice, performed better than they did a year before  

-speed anc accuracy INCREASE with PRACTICE

-SKILLS show a very high level of RETENTION 

-related to expertise

-the investigation of the chess-playing problem is intented to develop techniques that can be used for more practical applications (ex. war)  

unwarranted confidence which is produced by a good fit between the predicted outcome and the input information

-the internal consistency of a pattern of inputs is a major determinant of one's confidence in predictions based on these inputs  

after an really bad performance, you tend to perform better, or RISE UP to the NORM. opposite when you do well, you FALL BACK to the norm

ex. pilots

-failure to account for regression leads one to overestimate teh effect of punishment and underestimate the effect of rewards  

-people asses the probability of an event by the ease with which instances or occurences can be brought to mind

ex. heart attacks associated with acquintances with heart problems (recall of these instances)  

-most people judge words taht begin with a consonant to be MORE NUMEROUS than words in which the same consonant appears in the thrid position

-also, frequency of words is judged as relatively more numerous than concrete words   

-one generates several instances and evaluates frequency-probability by the ease with which the relevant instances can be constructed

ex. assessing risk of future adventure might depend on how easily you  can imagine-up difficulties you may encounter 

-people tend to overestimate the frequency of co-occurence of natural connections

ex. naive judges presented pictures of mental patients; later had to recall how many pics had suspicious looks on their faces and the numbers were OVERESTIMATED

AVAILABILITY can also explain this; suspiciosuness at an odd drawing of the eyes is due to the availability of the IDEA that suspiciousnerss is linked to eyes  

-choosing a starting point and then adjusting it to find the right answer

-different starting points yield different estimates, which are biased towards initial values  

-the quantified opinion of one person

-determine preferences among bets but are not derived from them

-note: any set of internally consistent probability judgments is as good as any other  

- approach to decision-making

-decisions are made based on past considerations and preferences rather than on experimental observations.

-this has to do with the RATIONAL THEORY OF CHOICE (a theroy flaweD)  

gain or loss has a subjective value depending on how much money you start out with

-a 100 dollar "sure thing"/gain appears to have more subjective value than a $200 dollar risky gain 

-however, in a CHOICE INVOLVING LOSS, most people prefer to take an even chance at losing 200 or nothing than losing 100 dollars "sure thing"  

-observes regularities in risky choices. 3 properties

1. defined on gains and losses rather than total wealth

2. ti is steeper for losses than it is for gains

3. it is CONCAVE for gains, CONVEX for losses  

outstanding behaviours are attribtued to relatively stable characteristics of the individual

-stability constraints eliminate achievements due to unique environemntal circumstances 

proposed individuals gain eminence/position of distinction in the eyes of others due to a long-term history of achievement. achievement is based on natural ability and personal motivation.

EMINENCE is genetically determined  

--- is either predominately influenced by inherited qualitties or is a funciton of learning and acquisition 

-general abilities: ex. intellignce or personality

-specific abilities : music and artistic abiltiy, body building ex. being able to draw 

-general learning and experience (acquired)

-domain-sepcific training and practice (acquired)