Name the 6 Brain Regions

1. Brain Stem

2. Cerebellum

3.Thalamus

4. Hypothalamus

5. Lymbic System

6. Cerebrum (cerebral Cortex)

"All or None" Principle

There are no degrees of stimulation of neurons.

Frequency and quantity of signals is the only thing that changes

Definition of Homeostasis

The way in which the body maintains a relatively stable internal environment while coping with external/internal changes

Name all the parts of the Hypodermis

- Connective Tissue

- Adipose Tissue

What is integration?

Every system of the body works together.

What is "Vitamin T"?

Touch

Explain the Process by which a stimulus reaches an effector

Stimulus --> Sensory receptors -->

-->Sensory Neurons (PNS) -->interneurons (CNS) -->

--> Motor Neurons --> Effectors

Name at least two Neurotransmitters and their functions

1. Acetycholine (Ach)- communicate with mm

2. Epinephrine/Adrenaline- Stimulate behavior/mood

3. Endorphins - Feel good/numb pain

2 supporting cells responsible for formation of myelin sheath

- Oligodendrocytes (CNS)

- Schwann Cells (PNS)

Limbic System

Primal Part of Brain

Functions of the Hypothalamus

- Controls ANS

- Endocrine System

-Thermostat

-Apetite

-Thirst

-Wake/Sleep cycle

- Emotions of Rage/aggression

Brainstem- parts and function

1. Medulla Oblongata

2. Pons

3. MidBrain

- Controls Breathing and Heart Rate

Function of the 

Cerebellum

Fine Motor skills, balance

Function of the

Thalamus

Receives info and sends to brain (cerebrum) to analyze

Parts of cerebrum and function

- Occipital Lobe

- Temporal Lobe

-Frontal Lobe

- Parietal Lobe

- L/R Brain

* Site of Conscious thought

Name spinal nerve pairs

and #of each

8 cervical

12 thoracic

5 lumbar

5 sacral

1 coccyx

=12 pairs total

3 most important electrolytes that assist in communication between neurons

- Sodium (Na+)

- Potassium (K+)

- Calcium (Ca 2+)

Diagram (breakdown) of the nervous system

Nervous System: 

I. CNS
II. PNS

       - Sensory (Afferent)

       - Motor (Efferent)

              a.Somatic (Voluntary)

               b. Automatic (Involuntary)

                      - Sypathetic (Fight or Flight)

                      - Parasympathetic (Rest)

Main components of Epidermis

• Sensory receptors

• Epithelial Cells

• 4-5 Regions

• Melanocytes
• Keratinocytes
• Merkel Cells
• Langerhans Cells

All parts of the Dermis

• Connective tissue (elastin and collagen)
• Rich supply of blood vessels and nerves
• Sweat glands
• Roots of hair and nails
• Sebaceous glands

3 Layers of the skin

1. Epidermis

2. Dermis

3. Hypodermis

5 Functions of the Integumentary System

1. Protection

2. Sensory Reception

3. Regulation

4. Synthesis of Vitamin D

5. Reflection to the world

Types of neurons involved in every reflex

(Necessary for reflex)

Sensory Neurons

and

Motor Neurons

3 Functions of the Spinal Cord

1. Carry sensory input to brain

2. Carry motor impulses to muscles

3. Reflex Center

A mm at HIGH ACTIVITY uses ________ (fuel)

and is __________ respiration.

mostly glycogen; anaerobic

A mm at rest uses ____________ (fuel)

and is ____________ respiration.

Mostly fat; aerobic

Isotonic concentric mm contraction

length of mm decreases

Isometric

length of mm stays the same

What hormone contributes the most in

muscle hypertropy?

Testosterone

Agonist-

Antagonist-

Synergist-

Ag- primary mover, active during motion

Antag- mm that opposes agonis, mostly inactive

Syn- Assists

Structures/ions involved in mm contraction

Calcium

Sodium

ATP

Actin

Myosin

Sliding Filament Theory

mm movement is the result of actin filaments sliding on top of myosin filaments resulting in decresed size

of mm fiber

Recruitment

1. When a motor unit cannot complete the task alone, more motor units have to be recruited.

2. Smaller motor units are recruited 1st and larger motor units follow

General senses-

Definition and Example

Senses that have receptors throughout the body.

Ex. Touch/pressure; Temperature; Pain; Proprioceptors

Proprioception

The body's ability to orient itself in space and organize movement

5 Types of Receptors

1.) Chemoreceptors (Taste/Smell)

2.) Photoreceptors(Sight)

3.) Nocireceptors (Pain)

4.) Thermoreceptors (temperature)

5.) Mechanoreceptors

Where are mm spindles located?

muscle belly

Role of Golgi Tendon Organs

Monitor tension build on mm tendon

Reciprocal Inhibition

a muscle contracts, sends an inhibitory response to opposing (antagonist) mm

All connective tissue is composed of:

Cells and Matrix

What makes up the matrix?

ground substance and fibers

Fibroblasts

- Most abundant cells in connective tissue

- Responsible for production of ground substance and fibers

Why and how does massage have an impact on connective tissue?

Because connective tissue is thixotropic and massage can benefit adhesions

Fibrocartilage

Composes meniscus and the intervertebral discs

Collagen Fibers

Compose tendons and ligaments; arranged parallel.

Primary connective tissue at

Tendons and Ligaments

Dense Regular

How does Body Insight work?

(Physiologically)

• Agonist is shorter= mm spindles underactivated
• Antagonist is constantly overstretched= mm spindles are initially overactivated but eventually adapt.
• GTOs of agonist is under constant tension (overactivated) but over time adapt
• BI at belly of shortened Agonist where spindles live:             1) BI lengthens shortened mm and spindles regain appropriate size                                                                 2)Moving and pressure= reeducation of mm                           3)   Tension of GTO normalizes                                                                
  

Hypotonicity vs. Hypertonicity

Hypo- less tonus than necessary to maintain normal levels of tonicity

Hyper- more than necessary

mm at moderate activity uses _________(fuel)

and is____________ respiration

1/2 fat, 1/2 glycogen; aerobic

Isotonic eccentric

legth of mm increases

Slow vs. Fast Fibers

Slow:                                        Fast:

Thin                                  Thick

Low Glycogen                      High glycogen

High endurance                    Low endurance

many capillaries                    Few capillaries

high myoglobin                     Low myoglobin

aerobic respiration                Anaerobic

slow twitch rate                  Fast twitch rate

Causes of shortened/overstretched mm:

1. Surgery

2. Pain

3. Emotions

4. Repetitive strain injury

During hypertrophy, the # of _________ increases,

not the # of __________.

# of filaments increases,

not # of mm fibers

Facts about Sarcomeres

1. Functional unit of mm

2. 1,000s of sarcomeres per mm fiber

3. sarcomere composed of actin and myosin

2 types of muscle

1. Smooth/ Visceral

2. Cardiac

3. Skeletal

Tendon

All connective tissue that wraps around muscle (Endomysium, Perimesium, Epimysium)

Motor Unit

1 neuron and all the mm fibers it innervates

Special senses:

Definition and examples

Senses that have receptors located at a specific area.

ex. Taste, Equilibrium, Smell, Sight, Hearing

4 sensory systems that are primarily responsible for postural control

1. Sensory receptors of foot(standing) or butt/legs (sitting)

2. Proprioceptors - mm spindles/GTOs; joint receptors

3. Photoreceptors of eye

4. Vestibular system (equilibrium) - inner ear

Phasic recepters

vs.

Tonic receptors

PHASIC- adapt faster (smell/temp/touch)

TONIC- adapt slower (pain)

Function of Muscle Spindles

Monitoring length of the muscle and rate at which it changes length

PNF is:

Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation:

1. Stretch= mm elongated = stimulation of spindles + activation of stretch reflex (counterproductive to stretching)

2. clt pushes against resistance = mm tendon loaded= GTO activated

3. Inhibitory signals to agonist mm and m relaxes.

= more productive stretch

Types of Human Tissue

1) Epithelial

2.) Nervous

3.) Muscle

4.) Connective

All 3 Fibers found in connective tissue

1) Collagen

2) Elastic

3) Reticular

Primary connective tissue in Hypodermis

Areolar

3 structures made of connective tissue but have poor blood supply

1. Cartilage

2. Tendons

3. Ligaments

Hyaline Cartilage

Found in articular surfaces of bones

Dense irregular tissue

- composes dermis

- fibers point many directions/ can withstand variety of forces

Functions of Respiratory system

1. Provide the required Oxygen to the body

2. Removes Carbon Dioxide from the body

3. Maintains optimum pH of the blood

4. Production of sound and help with smell

B Lymphocytes

T Lymphocytes

B: 1.) Produce antibodies

    2.) Fight pathogens found outside the cell

    3.)Need to be activated by T Helper cells

T: 1.)Need to be activate by T Helper cells

    2.) They fight pathogens that have entered the cell

Primary vs. Secondary Response (defense)

PRIMARY: - Slower and less pronounced

             - It takes place the 1st time our immune system encounters a specific pathogen

SECONDARY:  - Quick and robust

                   - Takes place after 1st time we have    encountered the specific pathogen

                    - Quick due to memory cells

Allergy

an exaggerated response of the immune system to an agent that is not a threat for the body;s health

Function of the kidneys

• Regulates bld pressure by regulating bld volume
• Eliminates waste products such as NH3, H+, Potassium
• Maintain bld pH by regulating H+ ion levels in bld
• Stimulates the production of red blood cells through secretion of hormone Erythropoeitin

Glomerular Filtration

• From the blood capillaries, water plasma and solutes, pass through fenestrations, and enter into tubules of nephron

• Depends on BP and osmotic pressure

Reabsorption

Return of filtrate molecules from the tubules to the blood (Glucose, amino acids, sodium, chloride, H20)

Secretion

Formation of urine and transport of molecules and ions into the filtrate (removal of waste products)

Liver

• Produces Bile

• Maintains Blood Glucose Levels

Pancreas

Secretes digestive enzymes important for digestion of all major macronutrients (carbs, proteins, fat)

Gallbladder

Stores and concentrates bile

 Mouth

Digestion begins here

Esophogus

Passageway between pharynx and stomach

Stomach

maintains low pH due to secretion of hydrochloric acid

main fx= store food

Small intestine

Responsible for most digestion and absorption of nutrients

(Duodenum, jejunem, ileum)

Large Intestine

Absorbs water and electrolytes

What is the primary stimulus for inhalation?

increased levels of Carbon dioxide

Surfactant

lubricant which reduces surface tension in the aveoli  and makes breathing possible

How do hormones find and stimulate their target cell?

Hormones can only stimulate cells that have the appropriate receptors for the specific hormone

Major glands of the

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

1. Hypothalamus
2. Anterior Pituitary
3. Posterior Pituitary
4. Thyroid
5. Parathyroid
6. Adrenal Cortex
7. Adrenal Medulla
8. Pancreas
9. Testes
10. Ovaries

During Forceful Breathing:

-Which mms are used for inspiration?

- Which mms are used for expiration?

Inspiration:

• Eternal intercostals
• SCM/Scalenes
• Pec Major/Pec Minor
• Serratus Anterior

Expiration:

• Internal intercostals
• Abdominals

Insulin

• In pancreas

• cellular glucose uptake, lipogenesis and glycogenesis

ADH

(Antidiuretic Hormone)

• In posterior pituitary

• Water retention/vasoconstriction

GH (Growth Hormone)

• Found in Anterior Pituitary

• Stimulates growth

ACTH

• found in Anterior Pituitary 

• Stimulates the release of glucocorticoids

Non-specific immunity

• fights all foreign agents

• composed of all WBCs except lymphocytes

• skin, mucous membranes, bodily fluids, stomach's low pH

• Inflammation (part of both NS and S immunity)

Sprecific Immunity

• Immunity against specific agent

• T and B lymphocytes involved

• Body develops mempry against agent, prepared to fight 2nd time encountered

• Inflammation is a process of both NS and S immunity

Fx of lymph nodes

Site where immune response is mounted to antigens in the lymph

Fx of Spleen

Site where immune response is mounted to antigens in the blood

Lymph is not propelled by the heart.

By what mechanisms does the lymph circulate?

• Lymphatic massage work
• contraction of smooth mm
• one-way valves found in lymphatic vessels
• breathing
• the contraction of large skeletal muscles
• arterial pressure

Functions of the lymph system

1. Helps the digestive system with fat absorption
2. Returns fluid lost at the capillaries back to the blood
3. Role in immunity

Estrogen

• Found in ovaries

• Female sex hormones

Aldosterone

• Found in Adrenal Cortex

• Promotes sodium retention, and by extension, water retention;

• Potassium excretion

Parathormone

• found in parathyroid

• stimulates osteoclasts and increases calcium levels in the blood

Testosterone

• Found in testes

• Matures and maintains male reproductive organs and male secondary characteristics

Glucagon

• Found in pancreas

• Increases glucose, Glycogenolysis and breakdown of fat

Cortisol

• Found in adrenal cortex

• Inreases blood sugar by increasing metabolism of all macronutrients