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| organisms & acellular agents too small to be seen by the unaided eye |
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Term
| The limit of detection for the unaided human eye |
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Definition
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Term
| some exceptions/contradictions regarding the definition of a microbe |
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Definition
| -Supersize microbial cells such as Thiomargarita namibiensis can grow to 0.7mm or larger, and some giant amoebas can be seen by the unaided human eye.
-Microbial communities such as mushrooms can easily be seen by the unaided human eye.
-Viruses are microorganisms but are not considered cells; rather they are nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat. |
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Definition
| -(1635–1703)
-Built the first compound microscope and used it to observe mold, fleas, and cork
-Published Micrographia
-Coined the term “cell” |
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Term
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Definition
| microscope that has 2 or more lenses that multiply their magnification in series |
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Definition
-(1632–1723)
-Built single-lens magnifiers.
-First to observe single-celled microbes. He called them “small animals.”
-He also discovered that hot coffee reduced the amount of microbes. |
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| the concept of living creatures arising spontaneously without parents |
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| evidence that was believed to support the spontaneous generation theory |
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Definition
Living organisms from non-living matter:
-Decaying meat “produced” maggots.
-Sand “produced” oysters and clams. |
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Definition
-(1626-1697)
-He challenged the spontaneous generation theory by analyzing the “production” of maggots and flies on decaying meat.
[image] |
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-(1729-1799)
-He challenged spontaneous generation theory by showing that a sealed flask of broth did not “spontaneously” gave rise to life (microbes).
-He also noted that an open flask of broth did give rise to life (microbes).
-Conclusions also demonstrated cellular fission of the microbes within the broth; showing microbes have “parents”.
[image] |
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Definition
| Broth boiled, then cooled at room temp |
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| Broth boiled, then cooled at room temp |
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-(1822-1895)
-His contributions to the science of microbiology and immunology earned him lasting fame.
-He showed that after boiling, the contents of a swan-necked flask remain free of microbial growth, despite access to air.
-He also showed that when the flasks were tilted or broken this lead to microbial growth (ie. broth had access to dust).
-He also discovered that microbes prefer one enantiomer over the other.
[image] |
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Term
| -His contributions to the science of microbiology and immunology earned him lasting fame. |
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Definition
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Term
| -He showed that after boiling, the contents of a swan-necked flask remain free of microbial growth, despite access to air. |
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Definition
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Term
| -He also showed that when the flasks were tilted or broken this lead to microbial growth (ie. broth had access to dust). |
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Definition
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Term
| -He also discovered that microbes prefer one enantiomer over the other. |
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Term
| -Built the first compound microscope and used it to observe mold, fleas, and cork |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
|
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Term
| -Built single-lens magnifiers. |
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Definition
|
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Term
| -First to observe single-celled microbes. He called them “small animals.” |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| -He also discovered that hot coffee reduced the amount of microbes. |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| -He challenged the spontaneous generation theory by analyzing the “production” of maggots and flies on decaying meat. |
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Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| -He challenged spontaneous generation theory by showing that a sealed flask of broth did not “spontaneously” gave rise to life (microbes). |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| -He also noted that an open flask of broth did give rise to life (microbes). |
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Definition
|
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Term
| -Conclusions also demonstrated cellular fission of the microbes within the broth; showing microbes have “parents”. |
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
| The theory that many diseases are caused by microbes |
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Term
| Important principles of germ theory |
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Definition
-Chain of infection
-Pure culture
-Colonies |
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Term
| Chain of infection in germ theory |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| A culture from a single parental cell |
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Term
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Definition
| Distinct populations each grown from a single cell |
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Term
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Definition
| -(1843-1910)
-developed the first guidelines (postulates) to establish a link between a specific microbe & disease
-Studied the link between Bacillus anthracis and anthrax |
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Term
| -developed the first guidelines (postulates) to establish a link between a specific microbe & disease |
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Definition
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Term
| -Studied the link between Bacillus anthracis and anthrax |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
1: Microorganism must be present in every case of the disease and absent from healthy organisms.
2: Microorganism must be isolated/grown in pure culture.
3: Same disease must result when microorganism is inoculated in healthy host.
4: Same microorganism must be isolated from 2nd diseased host.
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
| Microorganism must be present in every case of the disease and absent from healthy organisms. |
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Term
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Definition
| Microorganism must be isolated/grown in pure culture. |
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Term
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Definition
| Same disease must result when microorganism is inoculated in healthy host. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Same microorganism must be isolated from 2nd diseased host. |
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Term
| exception to Koch's 1st postulate |
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Definition
| Pathogens can infect an individual and cause no symptoms. |
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Term
| exception to Koch's 2nd postulate |
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Definition
| Some pathogens, can’t be cultured. For example, viruses need a host cell. |
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Term
| Exception to Koch's 3rd postulate |
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Definition
| There can be some pathogens for which there’s no model organism to study it. |
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Term
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Definition
| suspected that stomach ulcers were caused by a bacterium Helicobacter pylori |
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Term
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Definition
| process in which microbes gain energy by converting sugars into alcohol |
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Term
| A third of Europe’s population wiped out by... |
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Definition
| Yersinia pestis, agent of bubonic plague |
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Term
| Bubonic plague is spread by ______. |
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Definition
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Term
| Lady Mary Wortley Montagu |
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Definition
| introduced smallpox inoculation-1717 |
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Term
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Definition
| deliberately infected patients with matter from cowpox -1749-1823. |
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Term
| introduced smallpox inoculation-1717 |
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Definition
| Lady Mary Wortley Montagu |
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Term
| deliberately infected patients with matter from cowpox -1749-1823. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| the first person to use medical statistics to demonstrate the significance of mortality due to disease; she's the founder of medical statistics. This was in the 1850's, during the Crimean War. |
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Term
| the first person to use medical statistics to demonstrate the significance of mortality due to disease; she's the founder of medical statistics. This was in the 1850's, during the Crimean War. |
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Definition
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Term
| what medical statistics proved |
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Definition
| more people died of disease than from combat |
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Definition
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Definition
-ordered doctors to wash their hands with chlorine, an antiseptic agent.
-Mortality rates fell-1847. |
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Term
-ordered doctors to wash their hands with chlorine, an antiseptic agent.
-Mortality rates fell-1847. |
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Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
| -developed carbolic acid to treat wounds and clean surgical instruments-1865. |
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Term
| -developed carbolic acid to treat wounds and clean surgical instruments-1865. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| discovered that Penicillium mold generated a substance that kills bacteria-1929. |
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Term
| discovered that Penicillium mold generated a substance that kills bacteria-1929. |
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Definition
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Term
| Howard Florey and Ernst Chain |
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Definition
| purified penicillin. The first commercial antibiotic to save human lives-1941. |
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Term
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Definition
-1856-1953
-among the first to study microbes in natural habitats.
-Discovered lithotrophs, which are organisms that feed solely on inorganic minerals
-Developed enrichment culture, which is the use of selective growth media that support certain classes of microbial metabolism while excluding others
-Built the Winogradsky column. This actually generates a voltage potential.
-showed the importance of bacteria in geochemical cycling |
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Term
| -among the first to study microbes in natural habitats. |
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Definition
|
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Term
| -Discovered lithotrophs, which are organisms that feed solely on inorganic minerals |
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Definition
|
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Term
| -Developed enrichment culture, which is the use of selective growth media that support certain classes of microbial metabolism while excluding others |
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Definition
|
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Term
| -Built the Winogradsky column. This actually generates a voltage potential. |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| organisms that feed solely on inorganic minerals |
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Term
|
Definition
| the use of selective growth media that support certain classes of microbial metabolism while excluding others |
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Term
|
Definition
A wetland model ecosystem in the form of a column
[image] |
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
| Sulfate-reducing bacteria |
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Term
| showed the importance of bacteria in geochemical cycling |
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Definition
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Term
| the importance of microbes to the environment |
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Definition
[image]
All life depends on these oxidative and reductive conversions of nitrogen—most of which are performed only by microbes. |
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Term
|
Definition
-bacilli (rods)
-spirochetes
-cocci (spheres) |
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Term
what bacteria shape is this?
[image] |
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Definition
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Term
what bacteria shape is this?
[image] |
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Definition
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Term
what bacteria shape is this?
[image] |
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
| scanning electron microscopy (SEM) |
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Term
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Definition
| transmission electron microscopy |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| the ability to distinguish small objects close together |
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Term
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Definition
| an enlarged image of an object |
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Term
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Definition
| the difference in color intensity between an object and its background. This is needed for full resolution. |
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Term
|
Definition
| uses light and two or more lenses to magnify and resolve a sample |
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Term
|
Definition
| forms image using more than 2 lenses |
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Term
| types of light microscopy |
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Definition
-Bright-field
-Dark-field
-Phase-contrast
-Fluorescence |
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Term
| how bright field microscopy works |
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Definition
1. Light from the source is focused on specimen by condenser.
2. Light then enters objective lens where it is magnified into a real image.
3. The real image is magnified by the ocular lenses to produce a virtual image. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| image of object magnified only by objective lens |
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Term
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Definition
| objectives on revolving nosepiece |
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
| virtual image seen by eye, magnified by objective and ocular lenses |
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Objective Lens (Magnification Varies) |
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Term
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Definition
| Condenser (Collects and direct lights) |
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Term
| limitations of bright field microscopy |
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Definition
| -0.2μm distance between objects is best a bright-field can resolve. It can't detect viruses. -Most cells are colorless -Staining kills cells -Refraction of light is problematic |
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Term
|
Definition
| Bending of light as it passes through an object that slows its speed |
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Term
| the use of immersion oil in microscopy |
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Definition
| Immersion oil with a refractive index comparable to that of glass (n = 1.5) prevents light rays from bending away from the objective lens. |
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Term
|
Definition
| enable microbes to be visualized as halos of bright light against darkness |
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Term
| advantage of Dark-field optics over bright-field microscopy |
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Definition
| Allows the detection of very narrow cells (0.1 µm) that are unresolved by bright-field microscopy. |
|
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Term
| how Dark-field optics works |
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Definition
-Light shines at oblique angle.
-Only light scattered by sample reaches objective.
[image] |
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Term
| Phase-contrast microscopy |
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Definition
| exploits refractive differences between the cytoplasm and the surrounding medium or between different organelles |
|
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Term
| how Phase-contrast microscopy works |
|
Definition
Refractive differences in cell components are transformed into differences in light intensity.
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
uses fluorescence by a fluorophore to reveal specific cells or cell parts
This is where the specimen absorbs high energy light and emits (fluoresces) light of lower energy. Sometimes, the organism already has the right molecule. |
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Term
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Definition
| chemical compounds that absorb/emit light of specific wavelengths. Can be a dye or protein. |
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Term
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Definition
| Adding a stain/dye to the microbe itself |
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Term
| Why is staining microbes important? |
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Definition
-Increases visibility
-Preserves sample
-Highlights morphological features |
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Term
|
Definition
| where cells are made to adhere to a slide in a fixed position |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Heat- (FLAME)- preserves morphology but inactivates enzymes |
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Term
|
Definition
| Chemical -(ETHANOL)- preserves morphology and may also inactivate enzymes |
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Term
| does the specimen survive fixation? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| some basic dyes that are used |
|
Definition
-METHYLENE BLUE
-CRYSTAL VIOLET
-SAFRANIN
-Hematoxylin |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the molecules basic dyes bind to |
|
Definition
negatively charged ones, such as...
-Nucleic Acid
-Surface of Bacteria |
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Term
| some acidic dyes that are used |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| the charge of acidic dyes |
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Definition
|
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Term
| the molecules acidic dyes bind to |
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Definition
| those with positive charge, such as tissue |
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Term
| acidic dyes used often for... |
|
Definition
| cellular structures or background |
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Term
|
Definition
| Color added to cells but not background. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Stains one kind of cell but not another |
|
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Term
| types of differential staining |
|
Definition
-Gram
-Acid-fast
-Endospore |
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Term
|
Definition
| Distinguishes bacteria based on cell-wall properties into two groups: Gram-positive (or) Gram-negative |
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Term
|
Definition
| A diagnostic stain for mycobacteria, which retain the dye fuchsin because of mycolic acids in the cell wall |
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Term
|
Definition
| for vegetative and dormant spore |
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Term
|
Definition
| rigid structure that lies just outside the plasma membrane |
|
|
Term
| peptidoglycan composed of... |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the 5 steps of Gram staining |
|
Definition
1: add methanol to the cells to fix the cells to the surface, then air-dry
2: add crystal violet stain (1 minute)
3: add iodine to bind stain to Gram positive cells (1 minute)
4: wash with ethanol for 20 seconds
5: add safranin counterstain (1 min) |
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|
Term
| the 1st step of Gram staining |
|
Definition
add methanol to the cells to fix the cells to the surface, then air-dry
Gram positive: clear
Gram negative: clear |
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|
Term
| the 2nd step of Gram staining |
|
Definition
add crystal violet stain (1 minute)
Gram positive: purple
Gram negative: purple |
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|
Term
| the 3rd step of Gram staining |
|
Definition
add iodine to bind stain to Gram positive cells (1 minute)
Gram positive: purple
Gram negative: purple |
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|
Term
| the 4th step of Gram staining |
|
Definition
wash with ethanol for 20 seconds
Gram positive: purple
Gram negative: clear |
|
|
Term
| the 5th step of Gram staining |
|
Definition
add safranin counterstain (1 min)
Gram positive: putple
Gram negative: pink |
|
|
Term
| binding of Gram stain at the molecular level |
|
Definition
[image]
In a Gram-positive cell, multiple layers of peptidoglycan retain the crystal violet–iodide complex. In a Gram-negative cell, the stain leaks out. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Electrons are used instead of light beam. |
|
|
Term
| Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) |
|
Definition
| the electron beam is scattered from the metal-coated surface of an object, creating a 3D image |
|
|
Term
| Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) |
|
Definition
| the electron beam travels through the object, where the electrons are absorbed by an electron-dense metal stain |
|
|
Term
| some advantages of electron microscopy |
|
Definition
-Electron beam wavelength is 100,000x shorter than visible light.
-Great resolution
-Points closer than 0.5nm can be visualized as distinct.
-Useful for visualization of viruses & small cell structures. |
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|
Term
| GENERAL BACTERIA CHARACTERISTICS |
|
Definition
-Single celled
-Peptidoglycan cell wall
-Lack membrane bound nucleus
-Found in soil/water/air
-Some species may survive extreme temp/pH/salt |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
-Long, thick
-1-2/cell
-DNA transfer (Sex pili)
-Motility |
|
|
Term
| characteristics of fimbriae |
|
Definition
-Evenly distributed (or at poles)
-Short, thin, hair like
-Up to 1000/cell
-Attachment (Attachment pili) |
|
|
Term
| are pili or fimbriae long and thick? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 1 or 2 pili or fimbriae per cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are pili or fimbriae used for DNA transfer? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are pili or fimbriae used for motility? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are pili or fimbriae evenly distributed (or at poles)? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are pili or fimbriae short, thin, hair like? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are there up to 1000 pili or fimbriae per cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are pili or fimbriae used for attachment? |
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| CAPSULE (ALSO CALLED GLYCOCALYX) |
|
Definition
| Slippery outer layer composed of loosely bound polysaccharides |
|
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Term
|
Definition
-Adherence to surfaces
-Inhibits phagocytosis by macrophages |
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Term
|
Definition
| External helical filament whose rotary motor propels the cell |
|
|
Term
| functions of the flagellum |
|
Definition
| Swimming and swarming motility |
|
|
Term
| bacteria the flagellum is present in |
|
Definition
| Proteobacteria, such as E. coli |
|
|
Term
| 2 examples of bacteria moving without a flagellum |
|
Definition
-Via “fluid” or “currents”: blood, lymph, ocean currents, air currents etc.
-Via actin polymerization. Bacteria produce actin “tails,” which make it motile.
[image] |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| defines the existence of a cell |
|
|
Term
| this defines the existence of a cell |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The cell membrane consists of... |
|
Definition
| a phospholipid bilayer, with hydrophobic fatty acid chains directed inward, away from water |
|
|
Term
| The bilayer in bacterial cells contains ______, such as hopanoids. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The bilayer contains stiffening agents, such as ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Half the membrane volume in bacteria consists of ______. |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| proton-driven ATP synthase |
|
|
Term
| some types of phospholipids that can occur |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| effect of kinked fatty acids on the cell membrane |
|
Definition
| make the membrane more fluid, improving function in colder environments |
|
|
Term
| effect of cyclicalizing in fatty acids on the cell membrane |
|
Definition
| forms a planar ring to decrease fluidity |
|
|
Term
| In eukaryotic membranes, the reinforcing agents are... |
|
Definition
| sterols, such as cholesterol |
|
|
Term
| In bacterial membranes, the reinforcing agents are... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how hopanoids affect the bacterial cell membrane |
|
Definition
| by limiting the motion of phospholipid tails, thus stiffening the membrane |
|
|
Term
| functions of membrane proteins |
|
Definition
-Structural support
-Detection of environmental signals
-Secretion of virulence factors and communication signals
-Ion transport and energy storage |
|
|
Term
| molecules that can diffuse acrss the membrane |
|
Definition
| Small uncharged molecules, such as O2 and CO2 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Water diffusing across the membrane |
|
|
Term
| the types of molecules that require transporters |
|
Definition
| Polar molecules and charged molecules |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the net movement of molecules across a membrane without energy expenditure |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an energy requiring process that moves molecules against their electrochemical gradient |
|
|
Term
| bacterial cell wall aka... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what the cell wall does for the bacterial cell |
|
Definition
-confers shape and rigidity to the cell.
-Protects the cell membrane |
|
|
Term
| group of prokaryotes with no cell wall |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Most bacteria use ______ for their cell wall. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A disaccharide unit of glycan has... |
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Definition
an attached peptide of four to six amino acids.
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| PEPTIDOGLYCAN STRUCTURE (ALSO CALLED MUREIN) |
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-Meshlike polymer of identical subunits forming long strands.
-Two alternating sugars:
--N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)
--N- acetylmuramic acid (NAM)
-Amino acids
-These are glycan chains cross-linked w/ peptides of amino acids
[image] |
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| the 2 alternating sugars in peptidoglycan |
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-N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)
-N- acetylmuramic acid (NAM) |
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| composition of peptidoglycan |
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These are glycan chains cross-linked w/ peptides of amino acids
-N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)
-N- acetylmuramic acid (NAM)
[image] |
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| Peptidoglycan is found only in... |
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| the structure of the cross-linking in peptidoglycan |
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| The enzymes responsible for the synthesis of peptidoglycan make excellent targets for antibiotics because... |
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| Peptidoglycan is unique to bacteria |
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| the enzyme that cross-links the amino acids in peptidoglycan |
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-Have multiple layers of peptidoglycan.
--3-20 layers
--Threaded by teichoic acids
-The S-layer is a tough surface layer |
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| cell wall of Gram-positive bacteria |
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| phosphodiester-linked chains of glycerol or ribitol that threads through and reinforces the cell wall in Gram-positive bacteria |
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| what teichoic acid does for staining |
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| Negatively charged cross-threads help retain basic dyes. |
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| Teichoic acids are found in... |
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| the Gram- positive cell wall |
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| Teichoic acids constst of... |
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| glycerol or ribitol phosphodiester chains |
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| function of teichoic acids |
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| to reinforce layers of peptidoglycan |
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is this Gram-positive or Gram-negative?
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| function of lipoproteins in Gram-negative bacteria |
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| Connects outer membrane to peptidoglycan |
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| why Gram-negative bacteria are more dangerous than Gram-positive |
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| because the Gram-negative outer membrane confers defensive abilities and toxigenic properties on many pathogens, perhaps by way of lipopolysaccharides (LPS) on the surface of the outer membrane, since LPS act as endotoxin |
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| cell component that is harmless as long as the pathogen remains intact; but when released by a lysed cell, endotoxin overstimulates host defenses, inducing potentially lethal endotoxic shock |
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| what happens when an endotoxin, like LPS, is released? |
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| it overstimulates host defenses, inducing potentially lethal endotoxic shock; this causes a cytokine storm |
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outer membrane components that allow the passage of nutrients
they are also the site of antibiotic entry |
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| the site of antibiotic entry |
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| found in many free-living bacteria and archaea, it is a crystalline layer of thick subunits consisting of protein or glycoprotein and may contribute to cell shape and help protect the cell from osmotic stress |
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-possibly cell shape
-protecting the cell from osmotic stress
-forming biofilms
-binding to host cells
-swimming |
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| Crystalline layer of thick subunits consisting of protein or glycoprotein. |
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| region in bacteria where DNA is organized |
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| The nucleoid forms about ______ loops or domains. |
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| Within each domain, the DNA is supercoiled by ______. |
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Circular DNA strand that replicates independently
-can also carry unique genes, such as those needed for antibiotic resistance |
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| a type of acid found in mycobacteria |
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| mycolic acids, which are a group of fatty acids |
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| defensive fatty acid found in the complex multilayered envelope of mycobacteria |
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| mycolic acids are found in... |
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| the complex multilayered envelope of mycobacteria |
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| Mycolic acids linked to... |
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| arabinogalactan (A polysaccharide) linked to peptidoglycan |
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| Mycolic acids provide the basis for... |
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what type of bacteria has this envelope structure?
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| mycolic acid layer or mycomembrane |
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| How could pathogenicity be influenced by the M. tuberculosis capsule? |
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-makes it attach to the lung tissue
-makes it evade immune defenses |
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| the importance of a bacterial capsule |
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1: attachment to other cells
2: evasion of immune system |
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| capsule composed primarily of... |
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| type of bacteria that lacks cell walls |
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| type of bacteria that can not synthesize peptidoglycan |
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| the role of sterols in mycoplasma |
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| may stabilize plasma membrane |
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| the smallest bacteria capable of self-reproduction (0.3μm) |
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| some things members of genus Mycoplasma lack |
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| Mycoplasmas are close relatives of... |
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| how the cell membrane in mycoplasma is different |
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| it's 3-layered, thus thicker |
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what type of bacteria is this?
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| some diseases caused by mycoplasmas |
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-Chronic respiratory disease in chickens
-Primary atypical pneumonia in humans. “Walking pneumonia”
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| Light from the source is focused on specimen by... |
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| ______ magnifies specimen into a real image |
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| The real image is magnified by the ______ to produce a virtual image. |
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| suspected that stomach ulcers were caused by a bacterium Helicobacter pylori |
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