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| contains 3 to 4 percent carbon and greater quantities of impurities than steel |
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| Contains even less carbon than most steel alloys. Is what engineer Gustave Eiffel created the Eiffel Tower with. |
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| is any of a range of alloys of iron that contain less than 2percent carbon. |
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Ordinary structural steel, that contains less than three- tenths of 1 percent carbon, plus traces
of benefcial elements such as manganese and silicon, and of detrimental impurities such as phosphorus, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen. |
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Used for most beams and columns, superseding the older American Standard (I-beam) shapes. The wider flange allowed by roller spacing in the structural mill is much more structurally efficient.
W denotes a wide-Flange shape. The first number is the nominal depth in inches and the second number is the weight in pounds per foot of length.available in a vast range of sizes and weights. The smallest available depth in the United States is nominally 4 inches (100 mm), and the largest is 44 inches (1117 mm). Wide Flanges are manufactured in two basic proportions: tall and narrow for beams and squarish for columns and foundation piles |
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fabricated from hot- and cold-rolled shapes, the most common is the open-web steel joist (OWSJ), a mass-produced truss used in closely spaced arrays to support floor and roof decks.
produced in three series: K series joists are for spans up to 60 feet and range in depth from 8 to 30 inches.
LH series joists are designated as Longspan and can span as far as 96 feet. Their depths range from 18 to 48 inches.
The DLH Deep Longspan series are 52 to 72 inches deep and can span up to 144 feet.
Most buildings that use open-web joists utilize K series joists that are less than 2 feet deep to achieve spans of up to 40 feet. The spacings between joists commonly range from 2 to 10 feet |
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American Standard (I-beam) shapes
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American Standard shapes are less efficient structurally than wide flanges because the roller arrangement that produces them is incapable of increasing the amount of steel in the flanges without also adding steel to the web, where it does little to increase the load-carrying capacity of the member.
S denotes an American Standard beam. The first number is the nominal depth in inches, and the second number is the weight in pounds per foot of length.
Nominal depths of 3" 4" , 5" , 6" , 8" , 10" , 12" , 15" , 18" , 20" , and 24" |
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These are extremely versatile. They can be used for very short beams supporting small loads and are frequently found playing this role as lintels spanning door and window openings in masonry construction. In steel frame buildings, their primary role is in connecting wide-flange beams, girders, and columns.
They are also used as diagonal braces in steel frames and as members of steel trusses, where they are paired back to back to connect conveniently to flat gusset plates at the joints of the truss. L denotes an angle. The first two numbers are the nominal depths in inches of the two legs, and the last number is the thickness in inches of the legs.
Leg depths of 2", 2½", 3", 3½", 4", 5", 6", 7", and 8". Leg thicknesses from 1/8" to 11/8". |
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Channel sections are also used as truss members and bracing, and for short beams, lintels, and stringers in steel stairs.
MC denotes a channel. The first number is the nominal depth in inches, and the second number is the weight in pounds per foot of length.
Nominal depths of 6", 7", 8", 9", 10", 12", 13", and 18". |
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| WT denotes a tee made by splitting a W shape. The first number is the nominal depth in inches, and the second number is the weight in pounds per foot. Tees split from American Standard beams are designated ST rather than WT. Divide by original by 2 to arrive at available depths for structural tees made from these shapes. |
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| Wider solid shapes are called plate or sheet, depending on their thickness in relation to their width. Plate is thicker than sheet. |
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| Bars are round, rectangular, and hexagonal solid shapes generally not greater than 8 inches (203 mm) in any cross-sectional dimension. |
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| are prefabricated steel trusses designed to carry heavy loads, particularly bays of steel joists. They range in depth from 20 to 72 inches. They can be used instead of wide-flange beams and girders in roof and floor structures where their greater depth is not objectionable. Open-web joists and joist girders are invariably made of high-strength steel. |
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Arc Welding
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| is conceptually simple. An electrical potential is established between the steel pieces to be joined and a metal electrode held either by a machine or by a person. When the electrode is held close to the seam between the steel members, a continuous electric arc is estab- lished that generates sufficient heat to melt both a localized area of the steel members and the tip of the electrode. The molten steel from the electrode merges with that of the members to form a single puddle. The electrode is drawn slowly along the seam, leaving behind a continuous bead of metal that cools and solidifies to form a continuous connection between the members. It can join the members of a steel frame as if they were a monolithic whole. Welded connections, properly designed and executed, are stronger than the members they join in resisting both shear and moment. |
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| A braced frame works by creating stable triangular configurations, or diagonal bracing, within the otherwise unstable rectilinear geometry of a steel building frame. The connections between beams and columns within a braced frame need not transmit moments (bending forces); they can behave like pins or hinges, which is another way of saying that they can be shear connections |
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| Shear walls are stiff walls made of steel, concrete, or reinforced concrete masonry. They serve the same purpose as the diagonal bracing within a braced frame structure and, like the braced frame, moment connec- tions between beams and columns are not required. |
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resistant to rotation and thereby capable of stabilizing the frame against lateral forces.
Fully-Restrained (FR) moment connections (formerly AISC Type 1) are sufficiently rigid that the geometric angles between members will remain virtually unchanged under normal loading. Partially-Restrained (PR) moment connections (formerly AISC Type 3) are not as rigid as FR
connections, but nonetheless possess a dependable and predictable moment-resisting capacity that can be used to stabilize a building frame. FR and PR moment connections are also sometimes referred to as rigid and semirigid connections, respectively. Both connection types can be used to construct moment-resisting building frames. |
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| other wise known as Simple connections, are considered to be capable of unrestrained rotation under normal loading conditions and to have negligible moment-re- sisting capacity. Buildings framed solely with simple connections must depend on diagonal bracing or shear walls for lateral stability. |
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| The process of making a steel building frame vertical and square. |
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| Metal decking at its simplest is a thin sheet of steel that has been corrugated to increase its stiffness. The spanning capability of the deck is determined mainly by the thickness of the sheet from which it is made and the depth and spacing of the corrugations. It also depends on whether the decking sheets are single or cellular. Single corrugated sheets are commonly used for roof decking, where concentrated loads are not expected to be great and deflection criteria are not as stringent as in floors. |
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| Cellular decking is manufactured by welding together two sheets, one corrugated and one ßat. It can be made sufciently stiff to support normal floor loads without structural assistance from the concrete topping that is poured over it. Cellular decking can offer the important side benefit of providing spaces for electrical and communications wiring |
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Composite Metal Decking
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| designed to work together with the concrete floor topping to make a stiff, lightweight, economical deck. The metal decking serves as tensile reinforcing for the concrete, to which it bonds by means of special rib patterns in the sheet metal or by small steel rods or wire fabric welded to the tops of the corrugations. |
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| Corrugated steel sheets are also often used for siding of industrial buildings, where they are supported on girts, which are horizontal Z-shapes or channels that span between the outside columns of the building |
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| Some methods for fireproofing steel columns. (a) Encasement in reinforced concrete. (b) Enclosure in metal lath and plaster. (c) Enclosure in multiple layers of gypsum board. (d) Spray-on fireproofing. (e) Loose insulating fill inside a sheet metal enclosure. (f) Water-filled box column made of a wide-flange shape with added steel plates. |
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| are triangulated arrangements of steel members that are generally deeper and lighter than improved beams and can span correspondingly longer distances. They can be designed to carry light or heavy loads. light loadings are most often made up of steel tee or paired-angle top and bottom chords with paired-angle internal members. Trusses for Heavy loads can be made of wide-flange or tubular shapes. |
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| Top or bottom member of a truss. |
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| Cold-Formed Steel Components |
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| This term refers to light gauge steel framing members. It is meant to differentiate these lighter members from the hot-rolled shapes that are used in structural steel framing. |
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| refers to the relative thinness (gauge) of the steel sheet from which the members are made |
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Cee
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| For studs, joists, and raf- ters, the steel is formed into C-shaped sections. The webs of cee members are punched at the factory to provide holes at 2-foot (600- mm) intervals; these are designed to allow wiring, piping, and bracing to pass through studs and joists without the necessity of drilling holes on the construction site |
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Channel
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| For top and bottom wall plates and for joist headers. |
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| Thickness of the steel sheet from which a member is made. A standard range of depths and gauges is available from each manufacturer. Commonly used metal thicknesses for loadbearing members range from 0.097 to 0.033 inch (2.46-0.84 mm) and are as thin as 0.018 inch (0.45 mm) for nonloadbearing members |
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| materials with high resistance to the flow of heat, such as foam plastic sheathing or insulating edge spacers between studs and sheathing, to prevent the rapid loss of heat through the steel members. Without such measures, the thermal performance of the wall or roof is greatly reduced, energy losses increase substantially, and moisture condensation within the framing cavity or on interior building surfaces may occur, with attendant damage to materials, growth of mold and mildew, and discoloration of surface finishes. |
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| Able to be drawn out into a thin wire or hammered thin |
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| Metals that consist primarily of iron. Tend to be much less expensive than nonferrous metals. Stronger but tend to rust easily |
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| Nonferrous metals in general are considerably more expensive on a volumetric basis than ferrous, but unlike ferrous metals, most of them form thin, tenacious oxide layers that protect them from further corrosion under normal atmospheric conditions. This makes many of the nonferrous metals valuable for finnish components of buildings. Many of the nonferrous metals are also easy to work and attractive to the eye. |
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| A metal is seldom used in its chemically pure state. Instead, it is mixed with other elements, primarily other metals, to modify its properties for a particular purpose. Such mixtures are called alloys. An alloy that combines copper with a small amount of tin is known as bronze. A very small, closely controlled amount of carbon mixed with iron makes steel. In both of these examples, the alloy is stronger and harder than the metal that is its primary ingredient |
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| the application of a zinc coating to prevent steel from rusting. The zinc itself forms a self-protecting gray oxide coating, and even if the zinc is accidentally scratched through to the steel beneath, the zinc interacts electrochemically with the exposed steel to continue to pro- tect the steel from corrosion, a phenomenon called galvanic protection. |
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| High-temperature fusion connections are made by welding, in which a gas flame or electric arc melts the metal on both sides of the joint and allows it to flow together with additional molten metal from a welding rod or consumable electrode. |
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| Brazing and soldering are lower temperature processes in which the parent metal is not melted. Instead, a different metal with a lower melting point ,bronze or brass in the case of brazing, and a lead is melted into the joint and bonds to the pieces that it joins |
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| A soldered connection is not as strong, but it is easy to make and works well for connecting copper plumbing pipes and sheet metal roofing. Tin is the most commonly used alloy that is melted during soldering. |
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| Roofs with a pitch of 2:12 (17 percent) or greater are referred to as “steep” roofs. Roof coverings for steep roofs fall into three general categories: thatch, shingles, and ar- chitectural sheet metal. |
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| A low-slope roof (often referred to, inaccurately, as a “flat” roof) is usually defined as one whose slope is less than 2:12, or 17 percent. A low-slope roof is a highly interactive assembly made up of multiple components. |
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| The word shingle is used here in a generic sense to include wood shingles and shakes, asphalt shingles, slates, clay tiles, and concrete tiles. What these materials have in common is that they are applied to the roof in small units and in overlapping layers with staggered vertical joints. |
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| wood panels over wood joists, solid wood decking over heavy timber framing, corrugated steel decking, panels of wood fiber bonded together with portland cement, sitecast concrete slab, and precast concrete slab. For a durable low-slope roof installation, it is important that the deck be adequately stiff under expected roof loadings and fully resistant to wind uplift forces. The deck must slope toward drainage points at an inclination sufficient to drain reliably despite the effects of structural deflections. A slope of at least 1/4 inch per foot of run (1 in 50, or 2 percent) is normally required by the building code and by most manufacturers of low-slope roof membranes. |
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Thermal Insulation
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Thermal insulation for a low-slope roof may be installed in any of three positions: below the structural deck, between the deck and the membrane, or above the membrane.
Below the deck, batt insulation of mineral fiber or glass fiber is installed either between framing members or on top of a suspended ceiling assembly.
The traditional position for low- slope roof insulation is between the deck and the roof membrane. Insulation in this position must be in the form of low-density rigid boards or lightweight concrete in order to support the membrane.
n a protected membrane roof (PMR) system, insulation is installed above the roof membrane. This offers two advantages: The membrane is pro- tected from extremes of heat and cold, and the membrane is on the warm side of the insulation, where it is immune to vapor blistering problems. |
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| Built-up Roof Membraine (BUR) |
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| Fluid-Applied Roof Membrane |
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| Class A, B, C Roof Coverings |
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