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| swiss psychologist; children's cognitive strategies are age-related; cog. dev. is active (learn by doing); nativist |
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| mental structures formed to assimilate/organize processed info; early schemas activated by relevant objects |
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| putting new info into already present schemas- might have to modify info |
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| adjusting existing schemas so new info fits; shaking rattler a.o.t. sucking |
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| the 4 stages of cog development |
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| sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational |
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| birth-->2 yr; learning through senses/actions; reflexes evolve to purposeful behaviors (develops causality schema); object permanence |
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| key achievement of sensorimotor stage- realization obj continue to exist when not in view; imitation |
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| 2-7 yrs; symbolic thought- language, pretending; delayed imitation; egocentricism (teddy bear in tiny town); irreversibility, centration (playdoh) |
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| understanding that changing form does not nec. change essential character- lacking in preop stage |
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| concrete operational stage |
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| 7-11 yrs; conservation, concrete ideas, rules (tattling); cliques, drama, physical competition |
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| 11 yrs +; abstract thinking, logic, deductions and problem solving, manipulation of obj representations |
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| mixed up ability to show what is known vs what is actually known; stages too distinct- there is change w/in them; too nativist, didn't consider cultural diff |
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| cultural diff in cog development |
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| native am- minimal crawling, but walk at same time; australian aborigines get spacial abilities before swiss and # skills after |
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| study of how sounds and symbols are translated to meaning & cognitive processes involved in acquisition/use of language |
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| creative, structured, meaningful (describes concepts, unseen things, connects past/present/future), referential (topic need not be present), interpersonal |
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| individual sounds- basic structural elements of spoken lang- ~40 in eng |
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| smallest unit of meaning in lang- in eng almost all have combo of 2 or more phonemes |
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| interpretable, contains bulk of meaning |
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| can alter meaning of content morpheme |
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| study of meaning in language |
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| skinner, bandura: kids shape sounds->words->sentences through selective reinforcement & imitation; gleason: social interactions activate process of learning lang and provide info about lang; ignores non-imitated words, lang acquisition follows same sequence everywhere |
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| language acquisition device- prewiring giving humans ability to learn/understand lang- innate ability to recognize pho/morphemes, understand grammar- chomsky & nativism |
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| distinction pronunciation, simplified vocab, high pitch, exaggerated intonation/expressions- infants respond to and imitate more. exchanging noises->turn taking in conversation |
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| 4-6 weeks: cooing; 6 months: babbling (both sounds that are and aren't used in surrounding lang); 9 months: babbling becomes intelligible, approximate phonemes heard every day |
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| early infant communication |
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| crying: most imp. eye mov'ts scanning faces/mouth, recognize/distinguish bt phonemes of any lang |
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| baby follows hand/pointing of caregiver (lacking in autism) |
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| single-word utterances designed to express complete thought- in 1st words stage |
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| 2-word speaker- 2 yrs- beginning to combine and use appropriate grammar |
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| overgeneralization | oversimplification |
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| applying grammar rules or meaning too broadly | using just enough words to convey messages wout being syntactically correct |
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| loss of language (total or partial) & difficulty finding/articulating speech- understanding not damaged- associated w/ brocca's area (frontal lobe) |
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| loss of language comprehension- hear but don't recognize, don't understand own language (word salad)- Weinicke's Area (temporal lobe) |
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| gender diff in lang development |
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| boys spoken to less, hear fewer emotion words, hear "no" more- girls interrupted more |
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| tabula rasa- blank slate, defined by experience (nuture). updated by watson: train any infant to be any professional |
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| heredity predisposes us to certain behaviors, but environment also crucial (gender vs gender-associated behavior) |
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| orderly unfolding of patterns of behavior such as language acquisition or walking, according w/ genetic blueprints |
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| genetics give push in one direction |
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| defined roughly by age, implies sudden age-related changes, occur by shifts- qualitative changes: diff due to changing kind of, nature of experiences |
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| mechanisms governing development constant throughout life- quantitative change: due to increase in amnt of experiences |
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| time during which human must experience certain social/sensory events for normal learning/development- cannot be made up for by later learning |
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| process by which animals learn to follow/approach first moving object they see (ducks & lorenz) |
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| monkeys deprived of contact w mother in early infancy display severely disturbed behavior: evidence of critical periods- except that later contact overcomes psych probs |
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| grows from in (spine) to out- in womb and motor development |
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| research design- most widely used method- groups of subj of diff ages assessed/compared at one pt in time to draw concl about age-related behavior differences. do findings reflect developmental diff or environmental diff? |
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| research design evaluating group of subj at several pts in time to assess how behavior changes. prob: long time, shrinking samples |
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| studied children w/ IQ ^ 135- happier/more socially adept, less emotional problems |
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| research design combining elements of cross-sectional and latitudinal- subj observed more than once over shorter period of time |
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| subj in cross-sectional design with same year of birth belong to same birth cohort |
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| (germ cells) reproductive cell (sperm or ovum) |
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| strand of DNA containing organism's genes- in humans: 23 from each parents. female=XX male=XY |
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| degree to which twins share a trait. expressed as correlation coefficient |
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| larger, holds more genes, hold more recessive genes-->males more likely to have colorblindness, hemophilia |
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| assortment of genes each individual inherits at conception | char. resulting from epression of genotypes (brown eyes, blond hair). g/p inconsistent when genotype holds genes not expressed by phenotype |
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| heterozygous | homozygous |
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| genotype containing diff genes for one trait | genotype containing same genes for train (only brown eye genes) |
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| dominant gene | recessive gene |
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| prevails when paired w/ recessive, is expressed | expressed only in absence of dominant gene |
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| genetic transmission of genes carried only on X chro. male doesn't get chance to dominate over recessive traits with another X |
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| (huntington's chorea) destroys brain cells in adults + jerky, uncontrolled movt, emotional disturbance. dominant gene, appears bt 35-45 yrs. 50% chance pass it on. |
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| results in absence of enzyme nec. to metabolize milk protein phenylalanine-->damaged nervous system, mental retardation in infants. recessive gene. easy to test for/fight with diet. |
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| most common chro. disorder. mental retardation, short stature, flat skull/nose, extra fold skin over eyelid. 21st chro, pair has addition chro. attached. |
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| identified all human genes (~30,000) helps understanding of alzheimers, lou gherig's, down's, huntington's |
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| affects the nerves that control muscles |
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| 3 stages of prenatal development |
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| germinal, embryonic, fetal |
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| (zygote stage) 1st 2 weeks after fertilization- zygote develops rapidly, attaches to walls of uterus. amniotic sac, umbilical cord, placenta established. cell mass is called an embryo. |
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| 3rd week-8th week; fast growth/differentiation of major body systems/vital organs. teratogens-->deformation (bad nutrition, radiation, toxic chemical, diseases, drugs/alc) embryo very vulnerabe- vast majority defects here |
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| 3rd month-birth; bone/muscle tissue form, organs and body systems develop. fetal movt. |
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| not because more neurons develop, but bc existing neurons get larger (rats experiment) |
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| neural mechanism for memory- long-term changes in synaptic connections dependent upon patterns of neuronal activity |
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| children grow most rapidly... |
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| during the first few yrs than any other time |
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| phys/motor development head to foot- upper portion body develops first and most rapidly |
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| inner-->outer developmen: infants gain control over areas closest to body first |
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| when babies stroked on cheek, "root" for nipple: turn head, open mouth, sucking movt |
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| basic mechanism for survival- caregiver provides secure base from which to explore world- 1st studied by Harlow w/ monkeys |
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| indiscriminate attachment |
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| 1st few months- directed towards anyone |
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| 6-18 mo- responsiveness toward primary caregivers, distress when sep from cg |
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| 12-18 mo- fear of strangers diminishes, interest in ppl other than cg develops |
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| uses cg as "secure base," cries wen separated, actively seeks comfort. -->empathy, soc competence, better school performance |
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| insecure avoidant attachment |
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| ignoring/indiff to cg, little stress when separated |
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| insecure resistant attachment |
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| overly distressed by separation, anger |
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| insecure disorganized/disoriented attachment |
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| distressed by separation, confused by return- freezing- typically from abuse |
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| permissive-indifferent parents |
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| low control, low responsiveness. few demands, little punishment. |
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| high control, low responsiveness. strict rules, minimal warmth/communication -->disobedient/angry kids, indecisive, fewer friends |
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| high control, high responsiveness. clear rules, good listeners. |
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| permissive-indulgent parents |
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| low control, high responsiveness. |
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| key aspect of all def. of personality |
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| emphasis on the individual- distinct characteristics and traits integrated in all aspects of functioning |
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| freud; both a theory and therapy strategy; emphasizes role of unconscious in motivation human behavior; ppl as shaped by conflicts bt primary drives and societal pressure; is dynamic (based on changes in personality) |
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| psychoanalytic technique developed by freud- precursor: cathartic method/hypnosis- patients relax and say whatever comes to mind |
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| fueled by libido, motivated by pleasure principle- irrational & unconscious |
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| wish-fulfilling mental imagery used by id to discharge tension |
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| intermediary bt id and demands of real world- functions on reality principle (tendency to behave appropriately) |
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| conscious, internalization of soc's rules/demands- self evaluative- should not's and punishment, ego-ideal and approval |
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| freud's idea of unconscious maneuvers that shield ego from anxiety by denying/distorting reality |
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| 1st line of defense- exile of painful feelings to unconscious |
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| voluntarily hold feelings, of which we are aware, in check |
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| substitute self-justifying excuse for real reason behind behavior |
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| attributing one's own feelings to another- blaming bad professor for poor grade, best friend/bf conflict, aggressive person being paranoid |
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| displacement | sublimation |
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| divert impulse-driven behavior to "safer" target | impulse-driven behavior channeled toward producing socially valued accomplishment (georgia o'keef, football) |
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| coping by retreating to earlier stage of development- child sucking thumb on first day school, newlywed going home after first fight |
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| ego unconsciously replaces unacceptable impulses with opposites- id expressed in form acceptable to ego- super nice sibling, CO minister, censorship committee |
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| failure to acknowledge/recognize impulse-driven behavior- alcoholism |
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| atoning w/ 2nd action or thought- not nec. having acted on impulse- donating in church |
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| focus on sexual gratification shifts focus to diff erogenous zones |
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| first 6 years of psychosexual development |
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| oral (12-18 mo); anal (12 mo-3 yr) gaining control of excretion; phallic (5-6 yrs) interest in own genitalia, oedipal complex |
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| arrested development at any stage based on over or under stimulation |
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| 5yrs-puberty- sexual drives remain unexpressed, bc trauma from oedipal complex. not true scientifically, not evident cross-culturally |
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| after puberty- sexual feelings reemerge, gratification w/ members outside self/family begins |
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| difficult to test or operationalize, no clear predictions, not culturally universal, bad sampling/low evidence, sexism, importance of oedipal complex has declined |
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| primary motivation: striving to realize full human potential, aot basic primal instincts. phenomenological (learn more by examining other points of view/frames of reference) impacts training, policy, etc but hard to sci. validate |
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| carl rogers' self concept |
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| ideal self: what we would like to be. real self: our perception of what we really are. false self: you're loved only on conditional positive regard, not for your true self. maladjustment: incongruence between self-concept and experience, or bt ideal and real self. |
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| abraham maslow's hierarchy of needs |
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| from most basic to most abstract: physiological (sustenance/drink), safety, belonging, esteem (respect, status, attention), self-actualization |
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| abraham maslow's actualizing tendency |
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| forward motion, desire to fulfill own potential. based on the study of healthy people. 16 characteristics of self-actualized person |
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| criticism of humanistic theory |
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| subjective, non-verifiable, self and actualization cannot be operationalized, ignores environment/biology |
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| skinner; behavior explained by contingencies of reinforcement. ie conditioning responsible for behavioral patterns. stable traits aren't the cause, but the effect, bc of stable conditioning environments. |
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| bandura. relies heavily on sci data. cog processes mold personality by mediating bt the environment and behavior. stresses role of thoughts/perceptions/feelings in maintaining behavior (unlike skinner), and observational learning |
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| behaviors shaped by interaction bt cog factors and environmental factors. each factor can change the other- reciprocal, not one-way change. |
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| individual's belief that he/she is competent in particular situation. based on variety of experiences and observations. imp to have self-efficacy in areas you care about |
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| criticism of behaviorism/social-cog |
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| underemphasizing the unconscious/irrational/emotional, and genetics |
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| defines traits by studying individuals in depth, focussing on qualities of personalities | studies groups to identify traits that appear in clusters |
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| cardinal: powerful behavioral predisposition providing pivot point in person's entire life- only possessed by a few ppl. central: major characteristic. secondary: less generalized, short-term, affect behavior in certain circumstances (dress style, exercise patterns) |
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| factor analysis based on surveys, measuring correlation of surface traits under source traits. 16 source traits, exist as opposites (reserved-sociable, emotional-analytic) |
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| eysenick | 5 factor model |
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| neuroticism and extroversion as X Y axes. | neuroticism, extroversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, conscientiousness |
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| erikson's theory of psychosocial development |
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| only lifelong theory; 8 stages, each defined by major crisis/task: trust vs mistrust (rqs contact/interaction), autonomy vs shame/doubt (rqs encouraging parents), initiative vs guilt (rqs parents encouraging inquisitiveness), industry vs inferiority (rqs positive reinforcement from peer group), identity vs role confusion, intimacy vs isolation, generativity vs stagnation (task- determine purpose/goal in life, be productive), ego integrity vs despair (reflection on past accomplishments) |
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| 2007- identified all human genes- identifies which ones cause some forms of alzheimers, lou gehrig's, huntington's, down's |
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| provides amniotic fliud- protective, allows fetus to float in womb |
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| thoughts and feelings, memories not readily in conscious but easily obtained |
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| 3 types of children- easy, difficult, slow to warm up. 9 dimensions of temperament |
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| boiling situation down to academics/logic to avoid becoming emotionally involved |
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