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| Scientific study of behavior of humans/other animals. Goal: elucidate broad principals of behavior |
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| attempted to break down experiences into basic structures using introspection (subj-provided reports of perceptual experiences) |
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| study how mental processes help ppl adapt (influenced by darwin) using introspection+observations. william james. |
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| scientific approach- studies relationship bt environmental events and an organism's behavior. john watson, b.f. skinner. |
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| an experience does not = sum of parts-perception is active, constructive process. wertheimer, kohler, koffka. |
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| governing principal of gestalt psych- when several perceptual org. of obj. are possible, brain chooses best, simplest, most stable. |
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| emph. free choice, ability to make conscious/rational decisions- humans not controlled by environment or unconscious forces |
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| psych to control behavior |
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| controversial goal- consider aggression, anorexia, manipulating working conditions to ^ productivity |
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| both must be testable. theory generates hypothesis, which make assumptions about behavior in certain conditions, assuming theory is correct. hyp suggests relationship bt variables. |
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| levels at which to understand behavior |
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| biological, psychological, basic social interactions, larger social group, culture |
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| ex. biological explanation of behavior |
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| toddlers are most aggressive; certain traits are genetic; regions of brain regulate behavior |
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| ex. psychological explanation of behavior |
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| reactive vs proactive aggression implies ppl process info differently; anorexics see actions/body diff. than outsiders |
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| ex. social interaction explanation of behavior |
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| abuse begets abuse; mothers w anorexia having daughters w anorexia |
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| ex. larger social group explanation of behavior |
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| anorexia in gymnasts, models, ballet dancers; aggressive peers-->aggressive kids |
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| ex. cultural explanation of behavior |
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| am has 1 of highest levels of violence- gun culture, action movies; supersize culture |
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| research to solve a problem; discovery of memory impairment due to levels of mercury which were affecting job performance |
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| research conducted for purpose of verifying previous findings |
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| in depth study of 1 specific example- usually doesn't generalize, poor info from subject; useful in study of brain regions |
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| sample answers questions- efficient- respond bias, distorted answers, demographic bias, question design flaws |
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| only certain ppl respond to a survey- ppl who are unhappy w company make it look like company terrible |
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| every member of pop has equal chance being selected |
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| very systematic- descriptive information- avoids subject bias |
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| tendency of an observer to read more into situation than is there, or to report what expects to see |
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| subjects modify behavior bc aware of being observed; jane goodall incorporated into chimp society |
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| most research is correlational- statistical techniques to determine degree of relationship bt variable- does not = causation! |
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| coefficient of correlation |
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| between +1 & -1. 0=nonexistent relationship. + means vary together in same direction. helps make predictions |
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| in labs, precisely controlled conditions measuring subj rxns to stimuli |
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| condition/factor manipulated by experimenter to determine whether --> changes in behavior |
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| behavior that results from manipulation of ind. variable |
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| specified sample- for ex men & women w diabetes- can still be random |
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| what we are studying; way of measuring a construct |
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| artificial nature of lab influences behavior; not all questions posed lend to exp. investigation; |
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| scores distributed similarly on both sides of middle value- bell shaped curve |
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| indicates whether distribution are clustered closely or spread out arnd avg. includes range, standard deviation |
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| indicates how far a score deviates from avg in standard units |
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| using math to draw conclusions about meaning of data- allows you to ask ?s of data, create a hyp |
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| no true 0- for ex 0 IQ, 0ยบ |
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| there is a real 0- owning 0 items, measurement of height |
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| statistically significant |
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| finding unlikely caused by random chance |
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| compares diff bt groups to diff w/in groups- gender diff in height & shoes size. is an actual #, has own p value |
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| chance coeff. caused randomly. p<.001 means 1000 times, this coeff would appear randomly < 1X |
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| field of specialization- development computer models to simulate human cognitive processes/ solve problems. chess playing comp. |
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| learning theory: learning result of forming associations bt stimuli/responses- focused on neurobiological mechanisms underlying learned associations. also uses comp, which simulate neuron connections |
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| consists of brain and spinal chords, protected by meninges- coordinates and integrates all bodily functions |
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| peripheral nervous system |
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| transmits messages to and from CNS- somatic, autonomic nervous systems |
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| basic units of brain/nervous sytem- type of cell, made of cell body, dendrites, an axon. transmit messages to other neurons, glands & muscles |
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| (afferent) carries messages to CNS receptors from skin/ears/nose/eyes/other receptor organs |
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| (efferent) transmits messages from CNS to muscles/glands |
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of CNS, fucntions as intermediary bt sensory &
motor neurons |
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| (soma) largest part of neuron- contains nucleus, structures handling metabolic functions |
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| info gatherers- branches from neurons- receives messages from surrounding neurons |
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| extension of neuron- transmits impulse from cell body to terminal buttons on its tip |
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| bulb-like-end of axon- relseases chemical substance known as neurotransmitter |
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| semi-permeable- regulates passage of An-, Cl-, Na+ & K+ |
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| state in which neuron is not transmitting nerve impulse- allows to store energy for when needed to transmit-maintained bc membrane impermeable to Na+ concentrated outside |
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| voltage change in dendrites, produced by receipt of impulse-may or may not be sufficient to bring axon to threshold level |
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| initiated release of neurotransmitters- initiated when axon depolarized to threshold level (≈-55 millivolts) |
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| action potential will be passed through axon as long as sum of graded potentials reaches a threshold. no degrees and variability, but # of neurons firing can change. |
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| wrap around axons, forming myelin sheath |
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| insulating cover around axons- ^ neuron's ability to transmit impulses quickly |
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| gap/exposed portion axon bt glia cells |
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| nerve impulses leaping from node to node |
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| loss of myelination-->delay transmission signals from brain to muscles |
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| synaptic gap and portion of presynaptic/postsynaptic membranes invovled in transmitting signal bt neurons |
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| chemical messengers- transmit impulse across synaptic gap |
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| excitatory neurotransmitters |
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| allows Na+ to enter-->membrane excited/depolarized, graded potentials occur. effects known as EPSPs |
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| inhibitory neurotransmitters |
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| allow Cl- to enter, graded potential results in making membrane more negative. causes IPSPs |
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| neurotransmitter reabsorbed into presynaptic neuron to be used again |
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| enzymes break down neurotransmitters- "clean up" |
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| for a substance to be considered a neurotransmitter |
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| 1) contained in axon terminal button 2) released into synapse when neuron fires 3) cause post-synaptic effect after interacts w receptor |
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| neurotransmitter that is released from motor neurons onto muscle fibers to make them contract- also involved in learning/memory. 1st one discovered. affected in alzheimer's |
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| excitatory neurotransmitter in brain-imp in emotional arousal, stress- deficiencies linked to depression, ADD |
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| mood, thought, initiation of movt, higher level movt. mediates reward & pleasure and is substance of addiction. deficiencies-->parkinsons |
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| reduce dopamine- not specific area, but everywhere: problematic |
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| unlike DA can enter brain, but can --> halucination |
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| imp in sleep, agression, mood regulation. deficiencies-->sleep disorders, aggression, depression. |
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| serotonin uptake inhibitors |
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| SSRI- Prozac- inhibits serotonin reuptake, therefore ^ amnt serotonin |
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| manoamine oxidase inhibitor- for severe depression- inhibits MAO (enzyme that degrades norepinephrine) |
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| possibly linked to excessive levels of or above-normal reactivity to DA. delusions, hallucination, paranoia- most severe of mental disorders |
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| deficiencies of norepinephrine & serotonin |
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| of peripheral nervous system- transmits messages to/from skeletal muscles & from sensory organs to CNS. intentional movt |
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| controls glands, involuntary muscle movt- self regulating. |
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| sympathetic nervous system |
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| division of ANS. produces emergency responses like heart rate, pupil dilation. |
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| division of ANS. calming- conserves energy, return to homeostasis |
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| spinal chord-reptilian brain- cerebellum, medulla, reticular formation, pons |
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| controls vital life support functions- breathing, heartbeat, blood pressure- regulates reflexes like posture, coughing, sneezing |
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| fine-tunes motor messages, programs species-typical behavior, controls respiration, processes some sensory info. works w cerebellum to coordinate movt |
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| coordinates and regulates motor movt on opposite sides of body-particularly those required for rapid change in direction. |
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| aka reticular activating system-set of neural circuits-controls arousal, alertness, use norepinephrine |
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| defficient arousal produced by noradrenergic system (in RAS)-treated with Ritalin which facilitates norepinephrine |
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| old mammalian brain-thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, septum. damage-->excessive or limited emotional response |
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| expression of anger/rage/fear/aggression, social cognition/decision making. emotional aspect of memory. |
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| allows formation of memory |
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| plays role in experiencing of pleasure |
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| mesolimbic-cortical system |
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| believed to be involved in pleasure/reward-includes septum, nucleus accumbens, pathways leading to frontal cortex |
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| motivation, emotional expression; controls neuroendocrine system, maintains homeostasis. |
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| diff regions specialized for diff kinds of sensory info. works w reticular formation to regulate attention, sleep cycles. disruptions bt thalamus/frontal cortex-->ADHD |
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| initation of motor movt, emotion. disorder of basal ganglia is parkinson's |
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| gray matter surrounding white matter- make decisions, appreciate beauty, organize, plan |
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| largest, foremost- imp for emotion, memory, virtually all movt- a lot of inhibition |
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| consists primarily of visual cortex: network of neurons devoted to vision- processes color, shape, 3D form, motion |
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| primarily auditory cortex: for hearing. Wenicke's area interprets sound |
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| patients cannot name or identify familiar objects; can't identify familiar faces |
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| ability to form new connections to adapt to change |
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| chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands acting to regulate functioning of specific body organs |
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| special cells unique to each sensory organ |
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| phys energy converted to neural signal by sensory organs |
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| condition in which 1 type sensory stimulation evokes another sense |
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| min level intensity of stimulus to activate sensory process |
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| minimum phys intensity that can be perceived 1/2 the time |
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| min difference in intesnity we can distinguish bt 2 stimuli 1/2 the time |
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| size of jnd will vary depending on strength of original stimulus |
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| decrease in response of sensory receptors to stimuli when exposed to continual, unchanging stimulation |
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| ability to detect sensory stimulus depends on intensity+distractions/motivation-vbug game |
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| greatest portion of brain devoted to |
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| amplitude, intensity- measured by # photons |
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| color we perceive- determined by wavelength + brain's color processing |
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| how colorful light appears |
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| path of light through eye |
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| cornea, aqueous humor, pupil, lens, vitreous humor, retina |
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| collects/gathers light; membrane that bends to focus light |
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| in iris, changes size to allow diff light levels |
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| actively bends light to focus image onto retina |
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| 1st level of processing, contains rods/cones- |
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| imp in peripheral vision- highly sensitive to light, function in low-light situations |
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| densest concentration of cones in retina |
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| detect color, help see clearly |
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| collects info from ganglion, bipolar and amacrine cells & sends to occipital lobe |
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| optic disk- where optic nerve sits- no photoreceptor cells |
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| done by the object- certain hues absorbed (subtracted) and we see what's left- mixing yellow & blue paint |
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| done by our visual system- diff wavelengths simultaneously stimulate retina |
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| (young-helmholtz) human eye has 3 receptors for rgb- diff combos --> diff colors. consistent w colorblindness, dog receptor implant experiments. weren't aware of photoreceptor cells but there are 3 kinds of cones for diff wavelengths |
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| photoreceptors sensitive to certain pairs (RG, BY, BW) |
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| the primary determinant for object identification |
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| organization of patterns of stimuli into larger units, based on proximity, similarity, good continuation |
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| =similarity + closure + continuation + proximity. (identifying diff aspects of a scene) |
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| bottom up processing; top down processing |
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| obj recognition based on components; preceptual hypothesis based on info |
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| attract attention by activating motivational mechanisms (fear, hunger, arousal) |
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| looking at something motionless |
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| eye muscles gather info, focussing, transmitting to cortex- brain accomodates |
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| brain fuses diff images of each eye to assess distance. greater when an object close |
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| rotation of eyes toward each other- amnt required tells brain distance |
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| monocular cue- obj appear more fuzzy than those closer due to dust, haze |
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| (relative motion) moving obj move quicker when closer |
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| interpretation of sensory info directly by brain- no processing required- requires that all info is from environment, and certain info invariant |
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| induced motion; stroboscopic motion |
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| illusions of mov't. plane moving;light moving across visual field (neon sign) |
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