1) Gas exchange between atmosphere and or tissue (blood)

2) Body temperature regulation

3) Vocalization speaking

(Anatomy)

Conduction Pathways

where the air travels into and out of the respiratory system

• Mouth & nose
• Trachea
• Bronchi <L&R>
• Bronchioles (numerous)

(Anatomy)

Gas Exchange Surfaces...

• Respiratory Bronchioles
• Alveoli

•  Wrapped with pulmonary capillaries
• 80% of alveoli are covered by capillaries
• thin stretchy
• alveoli also expand and contract during breathing

(Anatomy)

Respiratory muscles

• Associates with ribcage
• Diaphragm

• Activity of respiratory muscle and lung. 
• Exchange of gases across alveoli

25mm Hg (SP)

.......................

8mm Hg (DP)

Tidal Ventilation

Air flow into the lungs...

Tidal Ventilation

Air flow out of the lungs

Active process. Diaphragm and external inter costal muscles  contract.

• Lung volume increases----> lung pressure decreases
• lungs contract (air rushes in)
• volume increases in thoracic cavity
• diaphram drop downward

• passive process
• relax the muscles (recoil)
• cartilage of thorax also recoils
• lung volume decreases
• lung pressure increases

• Automatic
• can be over-ridden
• ex: holding your breath, blowing out candles,speaking

O2--> 100mm Hg

CO2--> 40mm Hg

O2-->60mm Hg

CO2-->46mm Hg

• a thin layer of H2O.
• tends to prevent the alveolus from expanding (surface tension)
• Pulmonary surfactant (type 2 alveolar cells)

• Type II alveolar cells
• reduces attraction between H2O molecules
• easier to inflate alveoli

• Tidal volume (tv)
• Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
• Expiratory Reserve (ERV)
• Residual volume (RV)

normal volume breath in and out of the lungs

~500mL

Volume above the TV that you can inspire

~3000mL

Volume below the TV that you can blow out of the lungs

~1000mL

Lung volume that cannot be expired

~ 1200mL

• Respiratory controller
• controls RR <respiratory pace maker>, TV
• pays attention to blood (plasma) content of CO₂ and O_2, pH (H⁺)

Isinside this region between the blood brain barrier & brain (medulla)

• CO₂ reacts with H₂O in cerebrospinal fluid
• H⁺ is produced
• Respiration (rentilattion) increases!

• CSF H⁺ concentration also increases
• stimulate respiration
• breathe out faster
• CO₂ Levels drop

Receptors in aorta, cartoid arteries (L&R) respond to O₂.

pH drops (H⁺ concentration in blood increases) stimulate respiration.

--> receptors for H⁺ in aortic arch and cartoid arteries

• Carried by blood
• 98.5% is carried bound to hemoglobin
• small amount of O₂ is carried dissolved form in blood

• this is a protein found red blood cells (erythrocyte)
• each hb binds 4 O₂ molecules preferentially in the lungs
• Hb loses affinity O₂ in the targe tissue

• Low RBC count,low O₂ delivery to tissue.
• tired easily

• CO₂ will react with H₂O of the blood and it will form HCO₃ (bicarbonate) ~60%
• Carbon dioxide is dissolved in water ~10% ish
• carried by hemoglobin (~30%) CO2temporarily sticks/binds Hb

regulates hormones

H.P Axis

• Hypothalmus--> pituitary-->thyroid gland-->thyroid hormone
• hypothalmus-->(stimulating hormones)--> pituitary--> "trophic hormones"-->enodcirne gland

<Remember CO₂ normally drives respiration;

plasma CO₂ increases ---> V_E also increases>

• motor pathways can sometimes stimulate breathing muscles
• during exercise CO2 increases initially -->CO2 actually drop down! O2 levels dont change
• Limb movement also increases V_E

Control system. Body functions including:

• gastrointestinal function
• reprodcutive function
• growth and development
• circadian rhythms

• response "global"
• responses can be long lasting
• response is rather "slow"

(Components E.S)

Endocrine tissue

(Components of E.S)

Hormones/signal factors

(Components E.S)

cardiovascular system

• hormones are carried by blood to all targets in the body
• only tissue with receptors to that particular hormone will respond

1. Peptide or protein hormones
2. "Amiries"
3. cholesterol-derived hormones

• short proteins
• insulin (produced by pancreas)
• "soluble" in blood

Are synthesized from small compounds

• Norepinephrine (noradrenalin)

• steroid hormones
• not water soluble
• require carrying proteins (albumin) to move in blood stream
• Estrogens, pogesterone, testosterone

produced by pancreas.

we have a basal level of insulin

• in response to a meal--> insulin increases in blood
• as plasma glucose decreases--> insulin will decrease

• Located on cell plasma membrane. hormones that are water-soluble bind to those types of receptors
• Bind receptor--> second messenger!! system is activated
• Enzyme associated with receptor activated turns on a series of rxns
• produce lots of 2nd messenger!

• Steroid homones and thyroid hormones {lipid soluble (fat)}
• interaction between hormone and nuclear receptor-->the two will bind--> migrate to nucleus--> influences gene expression

• Homeostatically regulate the amount of glucose in blood
• meal--> glucose-->glucagon-->pancreas-->insulin

• to uptake glucose from blood
• liver: stimulates glycogenesis (synthesize glycogen)
• muscle:glycogenesis
• fat: lipogenesis (synthesize fats)

• Pancreas does not produce insulin
• daily insulin
• born with it

• Obesity--> plasma glucose increases,plasma insulin increases,
• Insulin receptors not sensitive to insulin!!!
• associated with inflammation--> leads to many diseases
• Lose weight and exercise and will go away

Release in response to low plasma glucose

• stimulates the liver to release glucose into the blood

• Regulates or basal metabolic rate
• produced by thyroid
• increase secretion in response to cold
• H.P -thyroid gland axis

• Stress hormone
• glucocorticoid
• release when exposed to stressful situations
• induce release of glucose from tissues, induce protein breakdown
• (releasing fuel into blood)
• Produced by adrenal gland specifically by cortex

Gastrointestinal system

Functions

• Digestion
• Abosorption
• Motility

Gastrointestinal

Digestion

Break down foodstuff

mechanical digestion- chew food

chemical digestion- enzymes, stomach acid

Gastrointestinal

Absorption

moving nutrients, water, ions, vitamins into the blood

small intestine

Gastrointestinal

Motility

muscle contraction

• segmentation
• peristalsis

Anatomy of Gastrointestinal

(1) Serosa

1(outer)--->4 (inner)

Anatomy Gastrointestinal

(2) Musculans Externa

Smooth Muscle

a) longitudinal

b)circular

• smooth muscle
• Orientation
• ->contraction: tube shortens

arranged around the circumference

• contraction: tube diameter decreases

Gastrointestinal

(3) Submucosa

• Contains lots of connective tissue
• gives some strength to the organ
• gives shape to the organ
• very large blood vessels; arteries and arterioles; veins and venules

Gastrointestinal

(4) Mucosa

Right next to the Lumen

(c) Epithelial cell layer lots of jobs!

S. Intestine--> absorbs nutrients, H₂O

Stomach--> secrets digestive enzyme

Esophagus--> protective

Gastrointestinal system

Gross Anatomy

• Mouth
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small Intestine

Functions in G.I system and respiration

chewing, tasting, swallowing

• sweet
• sour
• bitter
• salty

Transit tube

sphincters at top and bottom

prevents reflux

Heart burn

Stomach contents and acid reflux backwards into the esophagus.

• Stores food stuff temporary
• Digestion-->stomach acid (proteins), enzymes (proteins), mechanical digestion

Material leaving stomach and entering the small intestine (SI-->absorption)

Decides when to emty foodstuff into Si

REGULATED

• Fatstends to slow emptying
• large particles slow emptying
• pH stomach contents:

• Duodenum (1 ft)
• Jejunum (8 ft)
• Ileum (12 ft) (Final digestion, absorption)

Digestive Enzyme

Enzymes,

HCO₃^-  --> neutralizes

Starch--> glucose

Proteins--> amino acids, dipeptides, tripeptides

fats--> free fattyacids, 2-monoglyceride

part of biliary system

HCO₃^- , Bile salts

Absorbs nutrients, water, ions (Na⁺ , Cl^- etc.)

• Duodenum: regulates- release hormones

Cholesterol

Emulsifier: "solubilizes"

fats--> improves digestion of fats produced in liver

temporarily storesbile secretions

(bile salts, water, bicarbonate, toxic waste, bile pigments)

• Ascending Colon
• Transverse Colon
• Descending Colon
• Sigmoid Colon
• Cecum
• forms andstores feces
• contractions--> remove water

Veriform appendix

immune function--> regulates the number of bacteria that livein the long intestine

very little moves between the epithelial cells of small intestine---> H₂O

Resynthesizes fat

(fat absorption usually doesn't require transporters)

Regulation of function

Autonomic nervous system

Parasympathetic stimulation--> increase activity of GI traact (increase acid production, increase pancreatic enzyme production,increase motility)

Sympathetic stimulation--> Shut down!!

Controls tract.

work in conjuction with autonomic nervous system