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Midterm 1
Terms
342
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
02/09/2014

Additional Psychology Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
Descartes' theories/ideas
Definition

o   Argued that many functions of the brain operated mechanically, but the soul was what made reason and choice possible and distinguished us from other animals; the soul operated through the brain to govern our behavior

Term
Neuron
Definition

a specialized cell in the nervous system that accumulates and transmits information; main information processors of the nervous system

Term
Dendrites
Definition

“input” side; receive signals from many other neutrons; heavily branched

Term
Cell body (soma)
Definition

contains the neuron’s nucleus and all the elements needed for the normal metabolic activities of these cells

Term
Axon
Definition

“output” side; sends neural impulses to other neurons

Term
Motor neurons
Definition

longest axons in humans; transmit neural impulses from the brain to the muscles

Term
Efferent signal
Definition

carried in motor neuron; enables the brain to control the muscles by carrying information from the brain to some destination outside the brain

Term
Nervous impulse
Definition

the means through which individual neurons communicate with each other

Term
Efferent neurons
Definition

·      nerves that carry messages outward from the central nervous system

Term
Afferent neurons
Definition

·      nerves that carry messages inward toward the central nervous system; keep the nervous system informed about both the external world and the body’s internal environment; receptor cells that translate the physical stimuli into electrical changes which then trigger a nervous impulse in other neurons

Term
Interneurons
Definition

make “local” connections within the nervous system; usually have short axons or none at all

Term
Projection neurons
Definition

link one area of the central nervous system to some other areas (sometimes distant); thus have long axons

Term
Glia
Definition

type of cell in the nervous system believed to provide a “support” function for neurons

-nourishment for neurons ->key role in controlling nutrient supply (it converts glucose into lactate to feed the neurons)

-centrol role in brain development: guides newly created neurons from one position in the brain to another so that they make proper connections when arriving to appropriate destination and then produces chemicals to shut down neural growth-->establishes stable connection pattern

Term

In some circumstances, glia can release chemicals that increase the reactivity of neurons: why helpful and why bad?

 

Definition

§  Usually helpful since it makes the nervous system more sensitive to important inputs, but it may also be the source of neuropathic pain (condition in which people feel extreme pain to even a mild touch); also may contribute to development of epilepsy and other illnesses

Term
Myelin
Definition

a fatty substance that makes up some types of glial cells; wraps around the axon of some neurons to provide an insulating “myelin sheath” around these neurons

Term
Nodes of Ranvier
Definition

gaps between the successive wrappers of myelin that speed up the nerve impulses traveling along these myelinated axons

Term
White matter vs. grey matter
Definition

o   Gray matter consists of cell bodies, dendrites, and the unmyelinated axons

Term
Action potential
Definition

neuron’s response to input; information carrier of the nervous system; brief change in the electrical charge of a neuronal membrane; the physical basis of the signal that travels the length of the neuron

Term
Resting potential
Definition

·      the voltage difference between the inside and outside of a neuronal membrane when the neuron is stable and not firing

Term
Excitation threshold
Definition

the voltage difference between a neuron’s interior and the exterior that caused the neuron to fire if exceeded

Term

Ion concentration

Ion pumps

Ion channels

Definition
  • different inside the cell than outside
  • actively pumps ions into or out of the cell (sodium out, potassium in)
  • passageways through the membrane (open or block channels)
Term
Refractory period
Definition

the time after an action potential during which a neuron’s cell membrane is unprepared for the next action potential

Term
depolarize
Definition

in the nervous system, to lose the charge that normally exists across the neuronal membrane; briefly occurs when the neuron’s membrane is disturbed

Term
propagation
Definition

·      the spread of the action potential down an axon, caused by successive changes in electrical charge along the length of the axon’s membrane

Term
the neuron has fired if:
Definition

the stimulus is strong enough to destabilize the neuronal membraneà the neuron produces an action potential 

Term
All-or-none law
Definition

the law that all action potentials have the same strength and speed regardless of the triggering stimulus

Term

Synapse

presynaptic neuron

postsynaptic neuron

Definition

the small gap between two adjacent neurons; the neural signal has to jump across this gap to trigger the next neuron’s response

  • one before the synapse sends the message
  • one after the synapse receives the message

Term
Chemical signaling vs. electrical signaling
Definition

chemical: across neurons

electrical: within neurons

Term
Neurotransmitters
Definition

chemicals released by one neuron (the presynaptic one), which trigger a response in another neuron (the postsynaptic one); chief means of communication among neurons

Term
Synaptic reuptake
Definition

·      the presynaptic neuron’s process of reabsorbing its own neurotransmitters after signaling so that they can be released again the next time the neuron fires; essentially recycling the neurotransmitters

Term
Lock-and-key model of transmitter action
Definition

·      theory that proposes that transmitter molecules will affect the postsynaptic membrane only if the molecule’s shape fits precisely into the receptor

Term
Agonist
Definition

drugs that enhance a neurotransmitter’s activity

Term
Antagonists
Definition

drugs that impede the activity of a neurotransmitter

Term
Endorphins
Definition

a family of chemicals produced inside the brain that powerfully influence how we perceive and cope with pain

Term
Exogenous agonists/antagonists
Definition

chemicals introduced from outside the body

Term
blood-brain barrier
Definition

specialized membranes that surround the blood vessels within the brain and filter harmful chemicals out of the brain’s blood supply; acts as a filter to prevent toxins from reaching the central nervous system

Term
Endocrine system
Definition

·      the system of glands that release secretions (hormones) directly into the bloodstream and affect organs elsewhere in the body

Term
Neuropsychology
Definition

the effort to gain insights into the brain’s function by closely examining individuals who have suffered brain damage

Term

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) 

Definition

·      the technique of applying repeated magnetic stimulation at the surface of the skull to temporarily stimulate or disable target brain region

Term

      Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Definition
a record of the brain’s electrical activity recorded by placing electrodes on the scalp
Term

Event-related potential (ERP)

Definition
electrical changes in the brain that correspond to the brain’s response to a specific event; measured with EEG
Term

  CT (computerized technology) scan

Definition
a technique for examining brain structure by constructing a composite of X-ray images taken from many different angles
Term

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

Definition
a neuroimaging technique that documents the effects of strong magnetic pulses on the molecules that make up brain tissue; a computer then assembles this information into a picture of brain structure
Term

·      PET (positron emission tomography) scan

Definition
a technique for examining brain function by observing the amount of metabolic activity in different brain regions
Term

 Function MRI (fMRI) scan

Definition
a technique for examining brain function by measuring blood flow and oxygen use within the brain
Term

Central nervous system (CNS) 

Definition
brain and spinal chord
Term

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)


Definition
 the afferent and efferent nerves that extend from the brain and spinal cord to connect them with the organs and muscles; all nerves besides the CNS but connect to the CNS via the spinal chord
Term
Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
Definition

the division of the PNS that controls the skeletal muscles and transmits sensory information; includes all efferent nerves that control the skeletal muscles as well as the afferent nerves that carry information from the sense organs to the CNS

Term
Automatic nervous system (ANS)
Definition

the division of the PNS that receives information from and controls the internal organs; includes all the efferent nerves that regulate the glands in the body as well as those that regulate the smooth muscles of the internal organs and blood vesicles

Term
sympathetic branch
Definition

the division of the automatic nervous system that mobilizes the organism for physical exertion

Term
Parasympathetic branch
Definition

the division of the ANS that restores the body’s normal resting state and conserves energy

Term
Brain stem
Definition

the brain region at the top of the spinal cord that includes the medulla and the pons

Term
Medulla
Definition

at the bottom of the brain stem; controls breathing and blood circulation; helps maintain balance by controlling head orientation and limb positions in relation to gravity

Term
Pons
Definition

above the medulla; one of the most important brain areas for controlling the brain’s overall level of attentiveness and helps govern the timing of sleep an dreaming

Term
Midbrain and thalamus
Definition

·      on top of the pons; direct information to the forebrain where the information is more fully processed and interpreted

Term
Forebrain
Definition

on top of midbrain and thalamus; largest part of the human brain

Term
cerebral cortex
Definition

the outermost layer of the forebrain; crumpled up/wrinkled appearance

Term
cerebellum
Definition

the part of the brain just behind the brain stem that controls muscle coordination and equilibrium

Term
cerebral hemisphere
Definition

one half of the cerebrum; the topmost part of the brain; left and ride are divided by the longitudinal fissure

Term
frontal lobe
Definition

the area at the front of each cerebral hemisphere; includes tissue crucial for many aspects of planning and controlling thoughts and behavior

Term
temporal lobe
Definition

area in each cerebral hemisphere lying below the temples; includes tissue crucial for hearing and many aspects of language use; marked by the lateral fissure

Term
parietal lobe
Definition

divided from frontal lobe by central fissure; the area in each cerebral hemisphere that lies between the frontal and occipital lobes; includes tissue crucial for receiving information from skin senses

Term
occipital lobe
Definition

adjoining the parietal and temporal lobes; the rearmost area of each cerebral hemisphere; includes tissue crucial for processing visual information

Term
hypothalamus
Definition

subcortical structure that plays a vital role in controlling many motivated behaviors like eating, drinking, and sex

Term
limbic system
Definition

group of interconnected structures (including hypothalamus, amygdala, and others) that are crucial for emotion motivation and many aspects of learning and memory

Term
amygdala
Definition

an almost-shaped, temporal lobe structure that play a central role in emotion and evaluating stimuli

Term
hippocampus
Definition

a temporal lobe structure that plays a pivotal role in learning and forming new memories

Term
lateralization
Definition

functional differences between the two cerebral hemispheres; asymmetry in function

Term
corpus callosum
Definition

thick bundle of fibers connecting the cerebral hemispheres

Term
projection areas
Definition

areas in which the brain tissue seems to form a “map” of sensory information

Term
contralateral control
Definition

the typical pattern in vertebrates in which movements of the right side of the body are controlled by the left hemisphere, while movements of the left side are controlled by the ride hemisphere

Term
primary somatosensory projection area
Definition

the initial receiving area for sensory information arriving from the skin senses; in the parietal lobe

Term
apraxia
Definition

a serious disturbance in beginning or carrying out voluntary movements; may represent a disconnection between the primary (produce the movement) and nonprimary (organize and initiate the action) motor areas

Term
visual agnosia
Definition

the inability to recognize a visual stimulus despite the ability to see and describe it

Term
neglect syndrome
Definition

·      the result of certain right parietal lobe lesions that leave a patient completely inattentive to stimuli to her left, including the left side of her own body

Term

Aphasia

Nonfluent aphasia

Fluent aphasia

Definition
  • any of a number of linguistic disorders caused by injury to or malformation of the brain
  • aphasia of speech production (talking); lesions in left frontal lobe (Broca’s area)
  • ability to speak (not very substantially) but inability to understand; damage to Wernicke’s area (borders on the auditory projection area)
Term
prefrontal area
Definition

the frontmost portion of the frontal lobes, involved in working memory, strategy formation, and response inhibition

Term
executive control
Definition

processes such as making plans or overriding habitual responses that let the brain direct its own cognitive activities

Term
perseveration
Definition

the tendency to repeat a response inappropriately; often a result of deficits in executive control caused by prefrontal lesions; repeating an initial response even after feedback that it is now incorrect

Term
brain plasticity
Definition

·      the brain’s capacity to alter its structure and function

Term
changes in neuronal connections
Definition

·      neurons can create new synapses in response to new patterns of stimulation; dendrites grow new spines which act as receiving centers so the neuron gains new points of communication with which to make more connections

  • ex: blind develops stronger brain activity in other functions besides sight
Term
neurogenesis
Definition

·      the birth of new neurons; new neuron’s continue to develop throughout a lifetime and this growth is promoted by learning and new experiences; very slow in adult brain and it seems that new neurons don’t survive long

Term
stem cells
Definition

cells found in early stages of an organism’s development and that haven’t begun to specialize or differentiate; responsible for building the nervous system

Term
operational definition
Definition

o   Must have construct validity: it must truly reflect the variable named in the hypothesis

Term
dependent variable
Definition

·      variable that is measured or recorded in an experiment; the investigator wants to uncover whether changes in this variable depend on some other factor

Term
independent variable
Definition

the variable that the experimenter manipulates as a basis for making predictions about the dependent variable; we hope to examine its effects

Term
confirmation bias
Definition

people’s tendency to recall evidence that confirms their views more easily than they can recall evidence that refutes their views

Term
anecdotal evidence
Definition

evidence that involves just one of two cases; has been informally collected and informally reported; may represent exceptions à scientists refuse to draw conclusion from it because such a conclusion often draws from someone’s observations rather than from the observations themselves

Term
random sampling
Definition

a procedure in which each member of the population has an equal chance of being picked to participate in a study

Term
maximum variation sampling
Definition

a strategy of deliberately seeking out the unusual or extreme cases rather than the typical ones

Term
external validity
Definition

the degree to which the study represents the worlds as it exists outside of the study so that it reflects the broader population

Term
demand characteristics
Definition

the cues in a study that might tell a research participant what behaviors are expected or desirable in that setting

Term
double-blind design
Definition

neither the collector of the data nor the study participant knows the nature of the hypothesis or sometimes the nature of the groups being compared

Term
descriptive statistics
Definition

mathematical procedures used to characterize a data pattern

Term
frequency distribution
Definition

a table that lists how many scores fall into each of the designated categories    

Term
Mean (M)
Definition

a measure of central tendency found by adding up all the scores and then dividing the sum by the number of scores

Term
median
Definition

a measure of central tendency taken by putting the data values in order and finding the value that divides the distribution in half

Term
variability
Definition

the degree to which scores in a frequency distribution depart from the central value; how the individual scores differ from one to the next

Term
standard deviation
Definition

a measure of the variability of a data set; calculated by the square root of the variance (V)

Term
correlation
Definition

the tendency of two variable to change together; if one goes up and the other goes upàpositive correlation; if one goes up and the other goes downànegative correlation

Term
correlation coefficient (r)
Definition

a number that expresses both the size and direction of a correlation; varying from +1 (perfect positive correlation) to -1 (perfect negative correlation); always calculated on pairs of observations

Term
reliability
Definition

how consistent the measure is in its results

Term
inter-rater reliability
Definition

the correlation between the ratings of the judges

Term
validity
Definition

the extent to which a method measures what it is supposed to measure

Term
effect size
Definition

the difference between groups in a study, often found by subtracting the mean of one’s groups scores from that of the other’s scores; generally the larger the effect size, the more likely the result can be taken at face value

Term
statistical significance
Definition

o   p-value < 5% or .05 à unlikely to be accidental

Term
quasi-experiment
Definition

a comparison that relies on group that already existed (not created by the study)

Term
correlational studies
Definition

the investigator analyses the relationships among variables that were in place before the study, without manipulating those variables

Term
observational studies vs. experiments
Definition
observe world as it is vs. add a manipulation to see what it does to the data
Term
third-variable problem
Definition

the possibility that two correlated variables are changing together only due to a third variable

Term
experiment
Definition

a study of causal relationships in which the researcher manipulates an independent variable to examine its effect on a dependent variable

Term
random assignment
Definition

the process of using some random device to decide which group (experimental or control) each participant goes into; removes the third-variable problem

Term
within-subject comparisons
Definition

·      : comparing the data about each participant in one situation to data about the same participant in another situation

Term
between-subject comparisons
Definition

·      comparing one group of individual to a different group

Term
internal validity
Definition

enables us to conclude that the manipulation of the independent variable caused the observed changes in the dependent variable

Term
replication
Definition

a repetition of an experiment that yields the same result

Term
meta-analysis
Definition

·      a statistical technique for combining the results of many studies on a particular topic, even when the studies used different data collection methods

Term
empirical claims
Definition

claims that can be true or false depending on the facts

Term
informed consent
Definition

a research participant’s agreement to take part in the study, based on full information about what it will entail

Term
depressants
Definition

o   Alcohol depresses activity in neural inhibitory circuits that control our impulses

Term
stimulants
Definition

o   Raise blood pressure and heart and breathing rates; increase overall alertness

cocaine, adhd drugs, mdma (E)

Term
hallucinogens
Definition

drugs that powerfully change perception and can trigger sensory experiences in the absence of any inputs

Term
empiricism
Definition

o   Empiricists believe that we perceive and move around in the world because we have learned from making associations through experience

Term
distal stimulus
Definition

·      an object or event in the outside world

Term
proximal stimulus
Definition

·      the energies from the outside world that directly reach our sense organs

Term

the active perceiver

(what person argued this?)

Definition

o   Kant argued that perception is possible only because the mind organizes sensory information into preexisting categories

Term
psychophysics
Definition

·      an approach to perception that relates the characteristics of physical stimuli to the sensory experiences they produce; understanding the relationship between the world as it actually is and the world as we perceive it to be

Term
absolute threshold
Definition

·      the smallest quantity of a stimulus that an individual can detect

Term
difference threshold
Definition

the smallest amount that a given stimulus must be changed so that an individual can detect the difference

Term
just-noticeable difference (jnd)
Definition

the smallest different that an organism can reliably detect between two stimuli

Term
Weber's law
Definition

Allows us to compare the sensitivities of different sensory modalities

Term
Fechner's law
Definition

o   Law does not hold perfectly in all situations

Term
perceptual sensitivity
Definition

an organism’s ability to detect a signal

Term
decision criteria
Definition

·      an organism’s rule for how much evidence it needs before responding

Term
signal-detection theory
Definition

the theory that perceiving or not perceiving a stimulus is actually a judgment about whether a momentary sensory experience is due to background noise alone or to the background noise plus a signal

Term
payoff matrix
Definition

·      the pattern of benefits and costs associated with certain types of responses

Term
transduction
Definition

the process through which a physical stimulus is converted into a signal within the nervous system

Term
sensory coding
Definition

·      the process through which the nervous system represents the qualities of the incoming stimulus—whether auditory or visual, for example, or whether a red or green light, a sour or sweet taste

Term
psychological intensity
Definition

o   the difference between a bright light a dim one, or a subtle scent versus a dense cloud of the smell; generally the nervous system codes stimulus intensity through the rate of firing by the neurons in the sensory system

Term
sensory quality
Definition

o   how the nervous system represents the different between, say, vision and hearing; or within a modality, how it represent the difference between, for example, a high-pitched versus a low-pitched note

Term
specificity theory
Definition

·      the proposal that different sensory qualities are signaled by different quality-specific neurons (correct only in a few cases like pain)

Term
pattern theory
Definition

·      the proposal that different sensory qualities are encoded by specific patterns of firing among the relevant neurons (more common explanation)

Term
sensory adaptation
Definition

·      the process by which the sensitivity to a stimulus declines if the stimulus is presented for an extended period of time

Term
kinesthesis
Definition

the sensations generated by receptors in the muscles, tendons, and joints that inform us of our skeletal movement and our body in space

Term
vestibular sense
Definition

the sensations generated by receptors in the semicircular canals of the inner ear that inform us about the head’s orientation and movements; informs us which way is up and down

Term
skin senses
Definition

·      the group of senses including pressure, warmth, cold, and pain, through which we gain information about our immediate surroundings

Term
nociceptors
Definition

receptors in the skin that give rise to the sense of pain; they respond to various forms of tissue damage and to temperature extremes

Term
A-delta fibers
Definition

o   allows rapid transmission of information and are responsible for the pain experienced right after an injury

Term
C-fibers
Definition

o   unmyelinated and therefore slower in their transmission; the source of the dull ache that remains long after the injury occurs

Term
olfactory epithelium
Definition

·      a mucous membrane at the top of the nasal cavity; contains the olfactory receptor neurons that respond to airborne molecules called odorants

Term
gate control theory
Definition

the proposal that pain sensations must pass through a neural “gate” in order to reach the brain and can be blocked at that gate by neurons that inhibit signals from the nociceptors

Term
glomeruli
Definition

sites in the brain’s olfactory bulb where signals from the smell receptors converge

Term
pheromones
Definition

biologically produced odorants that convey information to other members of the species

Term
papillae
Definition

structures on the tongue that contain the taste buds which in turn contain taste receptors

Term
umami
Definition

·      savory; the flavor that characterizes many high-protein foods

Term
sound waves
Definition

successive pressure variations in the air that vary in amplitude and wavelength

Term
amplitude
Definition
the height of a wave crest to measure sound intensity
Term
frequency
Definition

the number of wave peaks per second; in sound it governs the perceived pitch of the sound

Term
cochlea
Definition

the coiled structure in the inner ear that contains the basilar membrane

Term
eardrum
Definition

the taut membrane that transmits the vibrations caused by sound waves from the auditory canal to the ossicles in the middle ear

Term
oval window
Definition

the membrane separating the middle ear from the inner ear

Term
auditory ossicles
Definition

the three bones of the middle ear that transmit the vibrations of the eardrum to the oval window

Term
basilar membrane
Definition

a membrane running the length of the cochlea; sound waves cause a deformation of it, bending the hair cells in the cochlea and thus stimulating the auditory receptors

Term
hair cells
Definition

the auditory receptors in the cochlea, lodged between the basilar membrane and other membranes above

Term
place theory
Definition

a proposal about pitch perception stating that regions of the basilar membrane respond to particular sound frequencies, and the nervous system interprets the excitation from different basilar regions as different pitches

Term
timbre
Definition

the quality of a sound apart from its pitch or loudness; timbre enables us to distinguish a clarinet from an oboe, or one person’s voice from another

Term
amplitude of light waves determines..
Definition

·      our perceived brightness; height of the waves

Term

Frequency (how many times the wave reaches its max. amplitude) of light waves are..

Definition

very high since light travels so swiftly

Term
wavelength (vision)
Definition

major determinant of perceived color; the inverse of frequency; distance between the crests of two waves

Term
visible spectrum
Definition

the narrow band of wavelengths between 750 and 360 nanometers that are visible to us

Term
photoreceptors
Definition

a light-sensitive cell on the retina that converts light energy into neural impulses; detects light

Term
retinal image
Definition

·      the image of an object that is projected on the retina; its size increases with the size of that object and decreases with the object’s distance from the eye

Term
iris
Definition

o   Adjustments in the iris are under reflex control à cause the pupil to dilate or contract à allows considerable control over how much light reaches the retina

Term
cornea
Definition

has a fixed shape; bends the light rays so they end up properly focused

Term
lens
Definition

just behind the cornea; fine-tuning after going through the cornea; surrounded by a ring of ligaments that exert an outward pull that causes the lens to flatten somewhat à allows proper focus for far away objects

Term
retina
Definition

where the physical stimulus energy is transduced into a neural impulse

Term
rods
Definition

photoreceptors in the retina that respond to lower light intensities and give rise to achromatic (colorless) sensations; receptors for night vision

Term
cones
Definition

§  Acuity (ability to perceive detail) is much greater in the cones than in the rods

Term
fovea
Definition

area roughly at the retina’s center where cones are plentiful and visual acuity is at its greatest

Term
how retina receptor cells work
Definition

they actually do not report directly to the brain; they stimulate bipolar cells which in turn excite the ganglion cells (collect information from all over the retina and the axons of these cells then converge to form a bundle of fibers called the optic nerve): the optic nerve, leaving the eyeball, then carries information first to the lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus and then to the cortex

 

Term
optic nerve
Definition

·      the bundle of fibers that proceeds from each retina to the brain

Term
blind spot
Definition

·      space at the back of each eyeball for the axons of the ganglion cells to exit the eye on their way to the thalamus; these axons fill the space leaving no room for rods or cones à no photoreceptors in the region which makes it completely insensitive to light

Term
photopigment
Definition

·      chemical in the photoreceptors that changes its form in response to light à producing an electrical change that tells the nervous system that light is present

Term
rhodopsin
Definition

the one photopigment of rods; breaks down more readily in response to light than the cone pigments do; sensitive to differences in brightness but cannot differentiate among different colors

Term
three different cone pigments important because
Definition

o   differences among the three are crucial to the cones’ ability to discriminate colors

Term
brightness contrast
Definition

the effect that makes a stimulus look much brighter on a dark background than on a bright one

Term
edge enhancement
Definition

relies on brightness contrast and allows us to see the edges between objects more clearly

Term
mach bands
Definition

illusion produced by contrast effects; dark region next to light region à contrast makes the light one look lighter and the dark one look darker

Term
lateral inhibition
Definition

the pattern of interaction among neurons in the visual system in which activity in one neuron inhibits adjacent neurons’ responses

Term
hue
Definition

·      color; the attribute that distinguishes blue from green from red; but shared by bright orange, middle orange, and dark orange

Term
brightness
Definition

dimension of color that differentiates black (low brightness) from white (high brightness) and distinguishes the various shades of gray in between

Term
achromatic colors
Definition

·      no hue; black, white, and all grays

Term
chromatic colors
Definition
colors also with brightness
Term
saturation
Definition

the purity of a color; the extent to which it is chromatic rather than achromatic; the more gray/black/white that is mixed with a color, the less saturation it has

Term
trichromatic color vision
Definition

·      the principle of human color vision; color vision occurs through three sets of cones, each cone contains a different photopigment, all photopigments have broad sensitivities but each photopigment is sensitive to a distinct wavelength of light

Term
simultaneous color contrast
Definition

·      the chromatic counterpart of brightness contrast

Term
color contrast
Definition

the tendency of any chromatic region on the visual field to induce a complementary color in adjoining areas

Term
negative afterimage
Definition

·      after staring at a green patch for a while then looking at a white wall, you would see this

Term
opponent-process theory
Definition

a theory of color vision proposing three pairs of color antagonists; red-green, blue-yellow, black-white.  Excitation of neurons sensitive to one member of a pair automatically inhibits neurons sensitive to the other member   

Psychological experience of seeing color (hue) can be attributed to this theory

Term
color blindness
Definition

o   Most color blind people are missing a pigment (dichromatic rather than trichromatic)

Term
all cells in the visual system have...
Definition

·      a preferred target; a type of stimulus that’s especially effective in causing that cell to fire

Term
receptive field
Definition

for each cell in the visual system, the region or pattern of the retina where the particular cell responds most effectively to stimuli; for some it is just a location, but for others it is a particular shape, color, or direction of motion

Term
feature detectors
Definition

·      neurons in the retina or brain that respond to specific attributes of the stimulus, such as movement or orientation

Term
Gestalt psychology
Definition

a theoretical approach emphasizing the role of organization in perception and other processes; we understand the elements of a visual input as linked/related to each other

Term
parsing
Definition

how you separate a scene into individual objects and link together the parts of each object but do not link one object’s parts to some other object

Term
similarity
Definition

in perception, a principle by which we tend to group like figures, especially by color and orientation

Term
proximity
Definition

in perception, the closeness of two figures; the closer they are together, the more we tend to group them together perceptually

Term

New synapses 

(plasticity)

Definition
create new connections by making new dendrites
Term

Modified cortical organization

(plasticity)

Definition
if a person receives a lot of practice in a task, more brain tissue is recruited for it --> tissue has been "reassiged"
Term
good continuation
Definition

a factor in visual grouping; we tend to perceive contours in a way that alters their direction as little as possible

Term
subjective contours
Definition

perceived contours that do not exist physically; we tend to complete figures that have gaps in them by perceiving a contour as continuing along its original path

Term
reversible figure
Definition

a visual pattern that easily allows more than one interpretation; often in changing the specification of figure versus ground or in changing the perceived organization of depth

Term
visual search
Definition

a task in which participants are asked to determine whether a specified target is present within a field of stimuli

Term
feature net
Definition

a hierarchical model of pattern recognition involving a network of detectors with feature detectors at the network’s starting point

Term
geons (geometric ions)
Definition

simple geometric features that can be combined to create all other shapes; an early and crucial step in some models of object recognition is determining which geons are present

Term
parco cells
Definition

ganglion cells that are particularly suited to perceive color and form due to their sensitivity to differences in hue; they blanket the entire retina and largely outnumber magno cells

Term
magno cells
Definition

ganglion cells that are particularly suited to perceiving motion and deption due to their sensitivity to brightness changes; found in the retina’s periphery    

Term
parallel processing
Definition

the cells analyzing the forms, the cells analyzing the motion, and all other analyzing cells work simultaneously à allows greater speed and sharpens your understanding of an object

Term
"what" system
Definition

the visual pathway leading from the visual cortex to the temporal lobe; especially involved in identifying objects

Term
"where system"
Definition

the visual pathway leading from the visual cortex to the parietal lobe; especially involved in locating objects in space and coordinating movements

Term
binding problem
Definition
the problem confronted by the brain of recombining the elements of a stimulus, given the fact that these elements are initially analyzed separately by different neural systems
Term
neural synchrony
Definition

different neurons firing in synchrony with each other

Term
perpetual constancy
Definition

the accurate perception of certain attributes of a distal object (such as its shape, size, and brightness) despite changes in the proximal stimulus caused by variations in our viewing circumstances

Term
unconscious inference
Definition

process by Helmholtz to explain certain perpetual phenomena like size constancy

Term
depth cues
Definition
sources of information that signal the distance from the observer; indicate the object’s position
Term
binocular disparity
Definition

a depth cue based on the differences between the two eyes’ views of the world; difference becomes less pronounced the farther an object is from the observer

Term
monocular depth cues
Definition

features of the visual stimulus that indicate distance even if the stimulus is viewed with only one eye

Term
pictorial cues
Definition

patterns that can be represented on a flat surface in order to create a sense of a three-dimensional object/scene

Term
interposition
Definition

a monocular cue to distance that relies on the fact that objects farther away are blocked from view by closer objects

Term
linear perspective
Definition

 a cue for distance based on the fact that parallel lines seem to converge as they get farther away from the viewer

Term
motion parralax
Definition

a depth cue based on the fact that, as an observer moves, the retinal images of nearby objects move more rapidly than do the retinal images of objects farther away

Term
optic flow
Definition

gives crucial information about depth and plays a large role in the coordination of our movements

Term
motion detectors
Definition

cells in the visual cortex that are sensitive to an image moving in a particular direction across the retina

Term
apparent movement
Definition

·      the perception of movement produced by stimuli that are stationary but are presented first at one position and then at a different one

Term
induced motion
Definition
perceived movement of a stationary stimulus, usually caused by movement of a surrounding framework or nearby objects
Term
correspondence problem
Definition

as your view changes, the perpetual task of determining which aspects of the current view correspond to which aspects of the view seen a moment ago

Term
conjunction search
Definition

search in which the target is defined by a combination of features

Term
illusory conjunction
Definition

 pattern of errors in which observers correctly perceive the features present in a display (such as color and shape), but misperceive how they are combined (i.e. seeing a green O and a red X when a green X and a red O were presented)

Term
priming
Definition

o   Priming based on expectations rather than recently-viewed stimuli: the relevant detectors will be more efficient if you were expecting the stimulus before it appeared à top-down priming

Term
habituation
Definition

a decline in the response to a stimulus once the stimulus has become familiar

Term
dishabituation
Definition

an increase in responsiveness when something new/different is presented after a series of presentations of something familiar

Term
Pavlov
Definition

·      salivation (of dogs in the experiment) occurs not just from food itself, but from things that the dog has learned to associate with food (the bowl it usually eats from, the sound of a bell that signals meal time, etc.)

Term
unconditioned response (UR)
Definition

o   Pavlov’s experiment: salivation

Term
unconditioned stimulus (US)
Definition

o   Pavlov’s experiment: Food in dog’s mouth

Term
conditioned response (CR)
Definition

o   Pavlov’s experiment: salivation = CR

Term
conditioned stimulus (CS)
Definition

o   Pavlov’s experiment: bell = CS

Term
classical conditioning (aka Pavlovian conditioning)
Definition

·      form of learning based on Pavlov’s experiment

Term
second-order conditioning
Definition

·      a form of learning in which a neutral stimulus (i.e. the bell) is first made meaningful through classical conditioning; then, that stimulus (now the CS) is paired with a new, neutral stimulus repeatedly until the new stimulus also triggers the original reaction (salivation)

Term
extinction
Definition

the weakening of a learned response à Conditioned response to an unconditioned stimulus can gradually be undone if they do not appear together for a long time (mouse will lose its fear of the “cat’s area” in the house if the cat left the household several months ago)

Term
spontaneous recovery
Definition

the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period in which no further conditioning trials were presented

Term
exposure therapy
Definition

the person is repeatedly exposed to the specific stimulus/situation that had been a source of anxiety or fear for that person

Term

Stimulus generalization

Definition

·      the tendency for stimuli similar to those used during learning to trigger a reaction similar to the learned response

Term
discrimination
Definition

an aspect of learning in which the person learns to respond differently to stimuli that have been associated with a US and stimuli that have not

Term
inhibitor
Definition

·      a stimulus signaling that an event is not coming, which triggers a response opposite to the one that the event usually causes

Term
contingency
Definition

·      the fact that the CS provides information about the arrival of the US à a CR is acquired only when the CS is informative about things to come

Term
blocking effect
Definition

a result showing that an animal learns nothing about a stimulus if the stimulus provides no new information

Term
condition response and unconditioned response are often different
Definition
even though they were the same in Pavlov's experiment (salivation)
Term
compensatory response
Definition

a response that offsets the effects of the upcoming unconditioned stimulus

Term
Instrumental conditioning (aka operant conditioned): 
Definition
a form of learning in which the participant receives a reinforce only after performing the desired response, thereby learning a relationship between the response and the reinforce à learning new voluntary behaviors
Term
Thorndike's cat experiment
Definition

·      the cat learned how to escape the box gradually in increments, rather than exhibiting any sudden insight into the problem’s solution

Term
Law of effect
Definition

Thorndike’s theory that a response followed by a reward will be strengthened, whereas a response followed by no reward or by punishment will be weakened

Term
instrumental learning
Definition

o   actions come more from within (voluntary)

Term
Skinner
Definition

one of the first theorists to insist on a sharp distinction between classical and instrumental conditioning

o   Procedure to expand on Thorndike’s cat experiment: rat pressing lever in order to gain a reward and then record the response rate

Term
operant
Definition
according to Skinner, an instrumental response that is defined by its effect on the environment
Term
reinforce
Definition

a stimulus delivered after a response that makes the response more likely in the future

Term
discriminative stimulu
Definition

external events in instrumental conditioning that signal what sorts of behavior will be rewarded in a given situation

Term
shaping
Definition

the process of causing a desired response by rewarding behavior that are increasingly similar to that response (successive approximations)

Term
behavorial contrast
Definition

a response in which an organism evaluates a reward relative to other available rewards or those that have been available recently

Term
partial reinforcement
Definition

a learning condition in which only some of the organism’s responses are reinforced

Term
schedules of reinforcement
Definition
rules about how often and under what conditions a response will be reinforced
Term
ratio schedule
Definition

a pattern of delivering reinforcements only after a certain number of responses

Term
Edward Tolman
Definition
alternative view à acquiring new knowledge, rather than changing behavior, is the key to condition  
Term
Latent learning
Definition

o   Rats learning to get out of a maze

Term
learned helplessness
Definition

o   Shocked dogs experiment: dogs that could control the stopping of the shock learned to avoid the shock in the next activity better than the dogs who had no control over the unavoidable shock

Term
observational learning
Definition

process of watching how others behave and learning from their example

Term
vicarious conditioning
Definition

a form of learning in which the learner acquires a conditioned response merely by observing another participant being conditioned

Term
mirror neurons
Definition

neurons that fire whenever an animal performs an action, such as stretching out its arm or reaching toward a target, and also whenever the animal watches another performing the same action

Term
biological constraints
Definition

predispositions that govern what the species can learn easily or with difficulty

Term
taste aversion learning
Definition

an organism learns to avoid a taste after just one pairing of that taste with illness à due to classical conditioningo  

Example of prepared learning

Term
prepared learning
Definition

occurs without extensive training because of an evolved predisposition to the behavior 

Term
Neural plasticity
Definition

the capacity for neurons to change the way they function as a result of experience

Term

Aplysia’s sensory neurons

Definition

the neurons that receive the CS

After conditioning they release more neurotransmitters into the synapse than they did before

 

 

 

 

Term

Presynaptic facilitation

Definition

·      a process documented in Aplysia studies that underlies many kinds of learning; occurs when learning results in an increased release of neurotransmitter into the synapse à explains why at the end of learning thee neurons are able to trigger a new response

Term

Long-term potentiation (LTP) 

Definition

a long-lasting increase in a neuron’s response to specific inputs, caused by repeated stimulation

Term

·      Acquisition - storage - retrieval

Definition
Term
recall
Definition

·      a type of retrieval that requires you to produce an item from memory in response to a cue or question

Term
recognition
Definition

a type of retrieval that requires you to judge whether you have encountered a stimulus previously

Term
acquisition
Definition

the processes of gaining new information and placing it in memory

Term
intentional learning
Definition

placing new information into memory in anticipation of being tested on it later

Term
incidental learning
Definition

learning without trying to learn and often without awareness that learning is occurring

Term
sensory memory
Definition

input in “raw” sensory information

Term
iconic memory
Definition

for visual inputs

Term
echoic memory
Definition

·      for auditory inputs

Term
working memory
Definition

·      describes the status of thoughts in memory that are currently being activated

Term
long-term memory
Definition

·      the vast memory depository containing all of an individual’s knowledge and beliefs, including all those not in use at any given time

Term
free recall
Definition

participants are free to recall the items in any order

Term
primacy effect
Definition

·      words presented at the beginning of the list are more likely to be recalled

Term
recency effect
Definition

the last few words presented are more likely to be recalled

Term
chunking
Definition

·      a process of reorganizing (or recoding) materials in working memory by combining a number of items into a single, larger unit

Term
maintenance rehearsal
Definition

mechanical repetition of material without thinking about its meaning or patterns 

Term
shallow processing
Definition

·      an approach to memorization that involves focusing on the superficial characteristics of the stimulus, such as the sound of a word or the typeface in which it’s printed

Term
deep processing
Definition

an approach to memorization that involves focusing on the meaning of the stimulus

Term
mnemonics
Definition

deliberate techniques people use to memorize new materialso  

Method of loci: requires the learner to visualize each of the items she wants to remember in a different spatial location

 

Term
memory trace
Definition

a physical record in the nervous system that preserves a memory

Term
memory consolidation
Definition

o   This period allows an adjustment in neural connections to create a new pattern of neurons to manage the newly acquired memory

Term
retrograde amnesia
Definition

o   Usually involves recent memories à the older the memory, the less likely it is to be affected

Term
retrieval
Definition

the process of searching for a memory and finding ito  

“Forgetting” = retrieval failure

 

Term


Tip of the tongue (TOT) effect

 

Definition

the condition in which one remains on the verge of retrieving a word or name but continues to be unsuccessful

Term
retrieval cue
Definition

a hint or signal that helps one to recall a memory

Term
retrieval paths
Definition

·      the mental connections linking one idea to the next that people use to locate a bit of information in memoryà routes that lead you back to the desired information

Term
context reinstatement
Definition

a way of improving retrieval by re-creating the state of mind that accompanied the initial learning

Term
encoding especificity
Definition

·      the hypothesis that when information is stored in memory, it is not recorded in its original form but rather translate (“encoded”) into a form that includes the thoughts and understanding of the learner

Term
retention interval
Definition

the time that elapses between the learning and retrieval

Term
forgetting curve
Definition

the graphic pattern representing the relationship between measures of learning and the length of the retention interval: as the retention interval gets longer, memory decreases

Term
intrusion errors
Definition

o   Involves information you learned only after the event ended

Term
misinformation effect
Definition

the result of a procedure in which after an experience people are exposed to questions or suggestions that misrepresent what actually happened; people’s tendency to include the misinformation as part of their recall of the original experience

Term
Bartlett's experiment
Definition

·      presented participants with stories drawn from Native American folklore; stories initially seemed strange to them but they retold the stories after along more familiar lines that made more sense to them à weaved together the story elements with things they already knew from their experience and from their knowledge about the world à prospect of memory errors

Term
schema
Definition

an individual’s mental representation that summarizes her knowledge about a certain type of event or situation

Many aspects of our experiences tend to be redundant

 

Term
DRM paradigm
Definition

a common procedure for studying memory in which participants read and then immediately recall a list of related words, but the word providing the “theme” for the list is not included

Term
familiarity
Definition

·      a general sense that a stimulus has been encountered before

Term
recollection
Definition

·      recall of the context in which a certain stimulus was encountered

Term
familiarity and recollection both depend on
Definition

·      on the prefrontal cortex during retrieval (but different parts of the prefrontal cortex)

Term
mug shot experiment
Definition

·      participants chose the face of someone they were shown in a photograph before, but who had not been in the original staged crime at all

Term

Gingko biloba

Definition

·      drug sometimes advertised as improving memory and other aspects of intellectual functioning, but it only helps those with a disease and has not been proven to improve the memory of health individuals

Term
explicit memory
Definition

·      conscious memories that can be described at will and can be triggered by a direct question

Term
episodic memory
Definition

form of explicit: memory for specific events and experiences

Term
semantic memory
Definition

form of explicit: o   memory for facts (including word meanings); are not tied to any specific time or place

Term
case of Gene
Definition

o   Destroyed episodic memory but in tact semantic memory

Term
implicit memory
Definition

memories that we may not recall consciously, but that still demonstrable through an indirect test

Term
flashbulb memories
Definition

o   Seem remarkable due to their clarity and longevity, but they are probably just a product of rehearsal plus ordinary mechanisms involved with emotional remembering; not a basis for claiming that they are in a class by themselves

Term
retrograde amnesia
Definition

·      a loss of memories for events that occurred before the brain injury that caused the amnesia

Term
anterograde amnesia
Definition

an apparent inability to form new explicit memories, but memories acquired before the injury are savedo   Damage to temporal cortex; could be caused by the illness of encephalitis that inflames the brain tissue or from stroke or physical trauma more often

 

o   Korsakoff’s syndrome: amnesia = symptom; associated with chronic alcoholism

o   Patients with it did show some form of implicit memory through indirect tests (got faster at a maze even though they did not recall being shown the correct route; participants always favored the tune they had heard before even though they said that they did not recognize it)

Term
H.M. patient
Definition

suffered from severe epilepsy à 1950s physicians surgically removed most of hippocampus, amygdala, and some nearby tissue

o   Successfully controlled epilepsy, but lost ability to add new information to long-term memory

 

Term
procedural knowledge
Definition

o   Represented in implicit memory

Term
declarative knowledge
Definition

o   Represented in explicit memory

Term
priming effect
Definition

o   Study (a propagandist’s dream): sentences plainly identified as false when still heard still created an illusion of truth later à familiarity increases credibility

Term
perceptual learning
Definition

o   Example: implicit learning when your eyes adjust to a stronger eye glass prescription

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