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| Four stages to the beginning of life |
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| Nucleotides and amino acids produced, nucleotides and amino acids became polymerized to form DNA RNA and proteins, polymers became enclosed in membranes, and membrane enclosed membranes acquired cellular properties |
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| Reducing atmosphere hypothesis |
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| Hypothesis on how life began stating that the atmosphere rich in water vapor was able to form amino acids, sugars and nitrogenous bases |
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| Applied an experiment to the reducing atmosphere hypothesis (Miller-Urey experiment) |
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| Island created through volcanic activity and lightning, which is used as proof for the reducing atmosphere hypothesis |
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| Extraterrestrial hypothesis |
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| Meteorites brought organic material to Earth |
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| Biologically important molecules formed between hot vent water and cold ocean water |
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| Why was prebiotic synthesis impossible in aqueous solution? |
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| Hydrolysis competes with polymerization |
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| Nucleic acid polymers and polypeptides formed on |
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| Aggregate of pre-biotically produced molecules that has acquired a boundary (membrane) |
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| Four characteristics of a protobiont |
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| Boundary, internal polymers contained information, enzymatic function, and capable of self-replication |
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| What was the first information containing macromolecule? |
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| Ability to store info, self-replication, and enzymatic function |
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| Advantage of DNA over RNA |
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| DNA is less likely to suffer mutations |
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| Advantage of proteins over RNA |
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| Proteins can perform more tasks more effeciently |
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| Factors that affect the fossil record (7) |
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| Anatomy, size, number, environment, time, geological processes and paleontology |
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| Hadean, archaean, proterozoic, phanerozoic |
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| The first prokaryotic cells appear |
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| Primitive cyanobacteria evolve |
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| Eukaryotic cells first appear |
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| Multicellular eukaryotic organisms first appear |
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| Large terrestrial colonization by plants and animals |
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| Climate/temp/water, atmosphere, plate tectonics, floods, glaciation, volcanic eruptions, meteoric impacts |
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| How many mass extinctions and when? |
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| 5 - End of Ordovician, Devonian, Permian, Triassic and Cretaceous periods |
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| 65.5 mya (after the Cretaceous period) |
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| First organisms were anaerobic or aerobic? |
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| Layered structures of calcium carbonate as a result of cyanobacteria activity |
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| Cyanobacteria produce BLANK as a waste product |
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| Banded iron formations are evidence of |
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| Largest mass extinction at the end of the |
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| BLANK Era was the age of the dinosaurs |
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| BLANK Era is the age of mammals |
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| Changes within a population or species over time |
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| Formation of new species or groups of speceis |
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| Group of organisms that share distinctive traits that are capable of successfully interbreeding |
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| Members of the same species that are likely to encounter each other and possibly interbreed |
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| Carolus Linneus came up with |
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| Things evolve upward towards human perfection, inheritance of acquired traits |
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| Uniformitarianism (Charles Lyell) |
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| Slow geological processes lead to substantial change in environment; Earth is over 6000 yrs old |
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| That only a fraction of any population will survive and reproduce |
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| Organisms diversify quickly in response to different environmental pressures |
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| Basically had the same ideas as Darwin |
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| Four postulates of natural selection |
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| Individuals are variable within a species, some of these variations are passed down to offspring, more offspring are produced than can survive,, and survival and reproduction are not random |
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| Five types of evidence for evolutionary change |
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| Fossil record, biogeography, convergent evolution, selective breeding and homologies |
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| Anatomical, developmental and molecular |
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| Provides a link between earlier and later forms (Tiktaalik rosae) |
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| Naturally found only in one particular location |
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| Two different species from different lineages show similar characteristics because they occupy similar environments |
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| Fundamental similarity due to descent from a common ancestor |
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| Anatomical structures that have no apparent function but resemble structures of presumed ancestors |
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| The arm bones of mammals are an example of |
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| Gill ridges in human embryos are an example of |
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| Two genes derived from the same ancestral gene |
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| Homologous genes in separate species |
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| Homologous genes within a single species |
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| Two or more paralogs within a single organism |
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| Globin genes are an example of |
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| Horizontal gene transfer and exon shuffling also increase |
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| Study of genes and genotypes within and between populations |
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| Total of all genes within a population |
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| Movement of alleles within and between populations |
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| Traits display variation within a population |
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| Predominantly single allele |
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| Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPS |
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| Smallest and most common type of change in a gene |
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| Number of copies of a specific allele in a population/Total number of alleles for that gene in a population |
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| Number of individuals with a particular genotype in a population/Total number of individuals in a population |
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| Hardy-Weinberg assumptions (5) |
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| Large population, random mating, no mutations, no migration between populations and no selection |
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| Changes in populations of living organisms that promote their survival and reproduction |
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| Likelihood of an individual contributing fertile offspring to the next generation |
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| Reproductive success attributed to |
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| Effective survival and reproductive characteristics |
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| Relative likelihood that a genotype will contribute to the gene pool of the next generation as compared to other genotypes |
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| Mean fitness of a population |
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| Average reproductive success of members of a population |
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| Individuals at one extreme of a phenotypic range are favored |
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| Favors the survival of individuals with intermediate phenotypes |
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| Disruptive/Diversifying selection |
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| Favors the survival of two or more phenotypes |
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| Phenotypes are kept in balance to maintain genetic diversity (EX: Malaria and Sickle cell) |
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| Between members of the same sex |
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| Between members of the opposite sex |
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| Genetic tract or egg selects against genetically related sperm |
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| Changes in allele frequencies due to random chance |
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| Fixation of an allele means |
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| The frequency reaches 100% |
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| Small group of individuals separate and form a new population |
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| Migration BLANKs differences in allele frequencies between two populations |
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| Migration BLANKs genetic diversity within a population |
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| Individuals with similar phenotypes are more likely to mate |
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| Dissimilar phenotypes are more likely to mate |
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| Lower mean fitness of a population due to inbreeding |
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| Evolutionary changes that result in new species |
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| A group of organisms that maintains a distinctive set of attributes in nature |
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| Most common characteristics used to identify a species (5) |
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| Morphological traits, ability to interbreed, molecular characteristics, ecological factors and evolutionary relationship |
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| Prevents one species from successfully interbreeding with other species |
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| Biological species concept (BSC) |
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| Species is a group of individuals who can interbreed with each other, but not others |
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| Habitat isolation, temporal isolation, behavioral isolation, mechanical isolation, and gametic isolation |
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| Hybrid inviability, hybrid sterility, and hybrid breakdowm |
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| Formation of a new species |
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| Division of one species into two or more species |
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| Method for cladogenesis that occurs when members of species become geographically separated |
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| Method for cladogenesis that occurs when members of a species that are within the same range diverge |
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| Mechanisms for sympatric speciation (3) |
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| Polyploidy, adaption to local environments, and sexual selection |
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| Organism has tow or mores sets of chromosomes |
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| Individuals that contain chromosomes from tow or more different species |
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| Speciation occurs continuously over long spans of time |
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| Tempo of speciation more sporadic including long periods of equilibrium |
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| Genes that occur in all animals that may be responsible for new body plans |
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| More complex animals have more BLANK genes |
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| Evolutionary changes in the rate or timing of developmental events |
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| Study of biological diversity and the evolutionary relationships among organisms |
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| Archea, Bacteria and Eukarya |
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| Dingle species evolves into a different species |
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| Group of species consisting of the most recent common ancestor and all of its descendents |
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| Clade missing a descendent |
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| Clade with an extra descendent |
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| Study and classification of species based on evolutionary relationships |
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| Shared primitive character (from ancestor other than most recent) |
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| Shared derived character (from most recent ancestor) |
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| Preferred hypothesis is the simplest |
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| Neutral mutations can be used to measure |
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| Archaea and Bacteria are both |
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| Prokaryotic (lack a nucleus) |
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| The cell walls of bacteria are made up of BLANK, while the cell walls of Archaea are made up BLANK |
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| Why are Archaea capable of living in extreme environments? |
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| Unique membrane lipids that are ether-bonded (vs. ester bonded) |
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| BLANK gave rise to plastids of eukaryotic algae |
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| A major phylum of bacteria that includes many pathogens |
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| Characteristics shared by bacteria and archaea |
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| Small size, rapid growth and simple cellular structure |
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| Ingrowths of the plasma membrane of chloroplasts and cyanobacteria to increase surface area for photosynthesis |
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| Flexible spiral shaped bacteria |
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| Relatively thick peptidoglycan layer that is susceptible to penicillin |
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| Less peptidoglycan in cell wall and a thin outer envelope of lipopolysaccharides that is resistant against penicillin |
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| Threadlike structures on the surface of bacteria and archaea used to move across surfaces |
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| Prokaryotic reproduction that involves the continual synthesis of DNA (splitting in two) |
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| Prokaryotic reproduction that takes up genes from the environment |
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| Prokaryotic reproduction that involves the direct transfer of genes between prokaryotes |
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| Transfer of genes by viruses |
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| Dormant cell of cyanobacteria |
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| Dormant cell of gram-positive bacteria |
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| Produce all/most of their organic compounds |
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| Use light as energy source for synthesis of organic compounds |
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| Use energy obtained from chemical modification of inorganic compounds to synthesize organic compounds |
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| Able to use light to make ATP but require other organic compounds from the environment |
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| Must obtain organic molecules for both energy and their carbon source |
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| Do not use oxygen, but are not poisoned by it |
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| Conduct nitrogen fixation |
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| Specialized cells for nitrogen fixation in cyanobacteria |
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| Phytoplankton obtain energy via |
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| Zooplankton are BLANK-trophic |
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| Communities of microorganisms such as seaweeds and macroalgae that are attached to underwater surfaces via mucilage |
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| Unique feature of supergroup Excavata |
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| Trichomonas vaginalis and Giardia intestinalis are in the supergroup |
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| Leishmana and Trypanosoma brucei are in the group |
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| Unusually large mass of DNA in a mitochondria |
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| Kingdom Plantae includes which algae |
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| BLANK algae have a unusually complex life style |
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| Unique feature of supergroup Alveolata |
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| Sac-like membranous vesicles (alveoli) |
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| Sac-like membranous vesicles |
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| Supergroup Alveolata includes (3) |
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| Ciliophora, Apicomplexa, and Dinozoa |
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| Unique feature of Stramenopila |
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| Straw-like hairs on the surface of flagella |
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| Unique feature of Rhizaria |
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| Thin, hair-like extensions of the cytoplasm |
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| Supergroup Rhizaria includes (2) |
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| Radiolaria and Foramenifera |
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| Slime molds are in the supergroup |
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| Supergroup Opisthokonta includes |
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| Animal and fungal kingdoms |
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| One of the few protists with a gametic life cycle |
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