Term
|
Definition
| approach to psychology focusing on the ways in which organisms process information, investigating processes such as thinking, memory, language, problem solving, and creativity. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| field of specialization in psychology concerned with factors that influence development and shape behavior throughout the life cycle from conception through old age. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| field of specialization concerned with understanding the impact of social environments and social processes on individuals. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| field of specialization that focuses on exploring the uniqueness of the individual, describing the elements that make up human personality, and investigating how personality develops and how it influences people's activities. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| field of specialization in which the primary activity is conducting research. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| branch neuroscience also known as physiological psychology, that focuses on the relationship between behavior and physiological events within the brain and the rest of the nervous system. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Area of specialization involved in the diagnosis and treatment of behavioral problems. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| area of specialization involved in the diagnosis and treatment of problems of adjustment. Counseling psychologists tend to focus on less serious problems than do clinical psychologists; they often work in settings such as schools. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A scientific theory is a logical explanation for all of the relevant data or facts scientists have observed regarding certain natural phenomena. An essential aspect of scientific theories is that they must be both testable and refutable. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| statement proposing the existence of a relationship between variables, typically as a tentative explanation for cause and effect, and often designed to be tested by research |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| research conducted for the purpose of verifying previous findings. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| method of research that involves in-depth study of one or more subjects who are examined individually using direct observation, testing, experimentation, and other methods. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| subjects are confronted with specific stimuli under precisely controlled conditions. Researchers using this method directly manipulate a particular set of conditions (independent variable), and then observe the effect on behavior (dependent variable). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A representative group of people are questioned, using interviews or written questionnaires, about their behaviors and attitudes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| researchers observe their subjects as they go about their usual activities, which often take place in a natural setting. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| statistical methods are used to assess and describe the amount and type of relationship between two variables of interest. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| selected segment of a larger population that is being studied in psychological research. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sample in which critical subgroups are represented according to their incidence in the larger population that the researcher is studying. Closely matches the characteristics of the population of interest. If not, biased sample. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sample group of a larger population that is selected by randomization procedures. Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| psychological research using the observational method that takes place in a natural setting, such as a subject's home or school environment. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tendency of an observer to read more into a situation that is actually there or to see what he or she expects to see. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tendency of subjects to modify behavior because they are aware of being observed. |
|
|
Term
| Coefficient of Correlation |
|
Definition
| statistics used to describe the degree of relationship between two or more variables in which positive correlations indicate that variables vary together in the same direction and negative correlations indicate the opposite. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| research conducted in precisely controlled laboratory conditions in which subjects are confronted with specific stimuli and their reactions are carefully measured to discover relationships among variables. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| condition or factor that the experimenter manipulates in order to determine whether changes in behavior results. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the behavior that results from manipulation of an independent variable. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a group of subjects who are exposed to different varieties of independent variables, so that resulting behaviors can be compared. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a group of subjects who experience all the same conditions as subjects in the experimental group except for the key factor (independent variable) the researcher is evaluating. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Milgram: placing people in a position where they feel compelled to hurt? deception appropriate in experiments? Zimbardo: placing humans in a situation the researchers might have anticipated could lead to hostile confrontation? |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| mathematical methods for describing and interpreting data. Descriptive and inferential. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| mathematical graphical methods for reducing data to a form that can be readily understood |
|
|
Term
| Measure of Central Tendency |
|
Definition
| in descriptive statistics, a value that reflects the middle or central point of a distribution of scores. Measured by mean, median and mode. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| arithmetic average obtained by adding scores and dividing by number of scores. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the score that falls in the middle of a distribution of numbers arranged from the lowest to the highest. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the score that occurs most frequently in a distribution of numbers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a distribution in which scores are distributed similarly on both sides of the middle value, so that they have the appearance of a bell shaped curve when graphed. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| describes an unbalanced distribution of scores. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a measure that indicates whether distribution scores are clustered closely around their average or widely spread out. Two measures of variability are the range and the standard deviation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a measure of variability that indicates the difference between the highest and the lowest scores. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a measure of variability that indicates the average extent to which all the scores in a distribution vary from the mean. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| numbers from a range of data indicating percentages of scores that lie below them. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a measure that indicates how far a score deviates from the average in standard units. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| process of using mathematical procedures to draw conclusions about the meaning of research data. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| definition specifying the operations that are used to measure or observe a variable, such as a definition of obesity specifying a certain a certain weight-height relationship. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| describes research results in which changes in the dependent variable can be attributed with a high level of confidence to the experimental condition (or independent variable) being manipulated by the researcher. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Peripheral Nervous System |
|
Definition
| transmits messages to and from central nervous system. somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| type of cell that is the basic unit of the nervous system. Consists of cell body, dendrites, and an axon. transmit messages to other neurons and to glands and muscles throughout the body. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| neuron that carries messages from CNS to receptors in the skin, ears, nose, eyes and other receptor organs. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| neuron that transmits messages from the CNS to muscles or glands |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| neuron of the CNS that functions as an intermediary between sensory and motor neurons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| largest part of neuron, containing nucleus as well as structures that handle metabolic functions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| branch-like extensions from a neuron with the specialized function of receiving messages from surrounding neurons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| extension of a neuron that transmits an impulse from the cell body to the terminal buttons on the tip of the axon. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| swollen bulb-like structures on the end of a neuron's axon that release chemical substances known as neurotransmitters. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| state in which a neuron is not transmitting a nerve impulse. A neuron in this state has a net negative charge relative to its outside environment, and this state of potential energy prepares it to be activated by an impulse from an adjacent neuron. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| voltage change in a neuron's dendrites that is produced by receiving an impulse from another neuron/ other neurons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| electrical signal that flows along the surface of the axon to the terminal buttons, initiating the release of neurotransmitters. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an action potential will be passed through a neuron's axon as long as the sum of graded potentials reaches a threshold. The strength of an action potential does not vary according to the degree of stimulation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| specialized cells that form insulating covers called myelin sheaths around the axons of some neurons, increasing conductivity. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| insulating cover around some axons that increases a neuron's ability to transmit impulses quickly. Made of glia cells. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| small gap or exposed portion of the axon of a neuron between the glia cells that form the myelin sheath. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| includes the synaptic gap and a portion of the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes that are involved in transmitting a signal between neurons. |
|
|
Term
| Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials |
|
Definition
| effects that occur when excitatory neurotransmitters cause a graded potential to occur on the dendrite or cell body of a receiving neuron |
|
|
Term
| Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials |
|
Definition
| a transitory state of hyperpolarization that occurs when inhibitory neurotransmitters inhibit the postsynaptic membrane of a receiving neuron. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| division of the PNS that transmits messages to and from major skeletal muscles as well as from sensory organs to the CNS |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| division of the PNS that transmits messages between the central nervous system and the endocrine system as well as the smooth muscles of the heart, lungs, stomach, and other internal organs, which operate without intentional control. |
|
|
Term
| Sympathetic Nervous System |
|
Definition
| division of the autonomic nervous system that functions to produce emergency responses such as increased heart rate, pupil dilation, and inhibited digestive activity. The sympathetic nervous system works in tandem with the parasympathetic nervous system. |
|
|
Term
| Parasympathetic Nervous System |
|
Definition
| division of the autonomic nervous system that functions to conserve energy, returning body to normal from emergency responses set in motion by the sympathetic nervous system. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the two sides of the cerebrum. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| structure low in the brain that controls vital life support functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure; also regulates reflexive functions such as coughing or sneezing. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| brain structure located just above the medulla that functions in fine-tuning motor messages, programming species-typical behaviors, processing sensory information, and controlling respiration. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| brain structure located beneath the overhanging back part of the cerebral hemispheres which functions to coordinate and regulate motor movement. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| set of neural circuits extending from the lower brain up to the thalamus that play a critical role in controlling arousal and alertness. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| collection of structures located around the central core of the brain that play a critical role in emotional expression, learning, and memory. Key structures of the limbic system include the amygdala, the hippocampus, the septal area, and parts of the hypothalamus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a small limbic system structure located next to the hippocampus in the brain that plays an important role in the expression of anger, rage, fear, and aggressive behavior. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| structure in the brain's limbic system that seems to play an important role in memory. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| structure in the brain's limbic system that plays a role in the experiencing of pleasure. |
|
|
Term
| Mesolimbic-Cortical System |
|
Definition
| the system of dopamine-containing neurons that originate in the ventral pons, project through the nucleus acumbens and septum, and terminate in the frontal cortex. This system mediates the reinforcing effects of addictive drugs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| small structure located below the thalamus in the brain that plays an important role in motivation and emotional expression, as well as controlling the neuroendocrine system and maintaing the body's homeostasis. The hypothalamus is part of the limbic system. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| structure located beneath the cerebrum in the brain that functions as a relay station, routing incoming sensory information to appropriate areas in the cerebral cortex. Also seems to play a role in regulating sleep cycles. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| neural structures involved in the initiation of motor movement and emotion. Includes the caudate nucleus, putamen, and the substantia nigra. |
|
|
Term
| Caudate Nucleus / Putamen |
|
Definition
| components of the basal ganglia involved with the control and initiation of motor movement. Affected by Huntington's disease. Adjacent to one another. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| region of dark colored neurons in the upper brainstem that sends axons to the caudate nucleus and putamen. Effected by Parkinson's disease. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| thin outer layer of the brain's cerebrum that is responsible for movement, perception, thinking and memory. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| region of the cerebral cortex that is involved in receiving sensory messages. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| region of the cerebral cortex that transmits messages to muscles. Controls intentional body movement. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the largest portion of the cerebral cortex; involved in integrating sensory and motor messages as well as processing higher functions such as thinking, interpreting, and remembering. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| largest, foremost lobe in cerebral cortex; important region for movement, emotion, and memory. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| region of the left frontal lobe that is the primary brain center for controlling speech. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| region of the cerebral cortex located just behind the central fissure and above the lateral fissure. contains the somatosensory cortex as well as association areas that process sensory information received by somatosensory cortex. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| area of the parietal lobe, directly across from the motor cortex in the frontal lobe, which receives sensory information about touch, pressure, pain, temperature, and body postition. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| region at the rear of the cerebral cortex that consists primarily of visual cortex. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| portion of the occipital lobe that integrates sensory information received from the yes into electrical patterns that the brain translates into vision. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| region of the cerebral cortex located below the lateral fissure that contains the auditory cortex. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| region of the temporal lobe located just below the lateral fissure that is involved in responding to auditory signals, particularly the sound of human speech. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| area of the left temporal lobe that is the brain's primary area for understanding speech. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an inability to know or recognize objects through the senses usually caused by brain injury or disease. Visual agnosia is the failure to recognize or identify objects visually even though they can be seen. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an inability to visually recognize particular faces usually caused by brain disease or injury. Patients can see a face but may not be able to recognize it as familiar. |
|
|
Term
| Lateralization of Function |
|
Definition
| degree to which a particular function, such as the understanding of speech, is controlled by one rather than both hemispheres. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| broad band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| technique for studying the brain that involves surgical damage to a precise region. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| technique for studying the brain that involves stimulating precise regions with a weak electric current. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| technique for studying the brain in which tiny wires implanted in the brain are used to record neural electrical activity. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| technique used to measure and record electrical activity of the cortex |
|
|
Term
| Computerized Axial Tomography |
|
Definition
| a procedure used to locate brain abnormalities that involves rotating an X-ray scanner around the skull to produce an accurate image of a living brain. |
|
|
Term
| Position Emission Tomography |
|
Definition
| technique for studying the brain that involves injecting a subject with a glucose-like sugar tagged with a radioactive isotope that accumulates in brain cells in direct proportion to their activity level. |
|
|
Term
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging |
|
Definition
| procedure for studying the brain that uses radio waves to excite hydrogen protons in the brain tissue, creating a magnetic field change. |
|
|
Term
| Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging |
|
Definition
| a method of magnetic resonance imaging that measures energy released by brain cells that are active during a specific task. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| system of ductless glands, including the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pancreas, and gonads, that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream or lymph fluids. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chemical messengers secreted by the endocrine glands that act to regulate the functioning of specific body organs. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| located directly below and connected to the hypothalamus. Produces a number of hormones, many of which trigger other endocrine glands to release hormones. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| located in the neck. Influences metabolism, growth, and maturation. Produces thyroxine. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the major hormone produced by the thyroid gland that regulate metabolism. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| located just above the kidneys, that influence emotional state, energy levels, and responses to stress by releasing hormones. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ovaries and testes; produce sex hormones that influence development of sexual systems and secondary sex characteristics as well as sexual motivation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| psychoactive drugs including opiates, sedatives, and alcohol, that have the effect of slowing down or depressing CNS activity. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| include tranquilizers, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines that induce relaxation, calmness, and sleep. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| also known as opiates, include opium, morphine, codeine, and heroin. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| psychoactive drugs including caffeine, nicotine, amphetamine, and cocaine, that stimulate the CNS by increasing the transmission of neural impulses. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a group of powerful stimulants, including bensedine, dexedrine, and ritalin, that dramatically increase alertness and promote feelings of euphoria. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| class of psychoactive drugs, including LSD and ecstasy, that alter sensory perceptions, thinking processes, and emotions, often causing delusions, hallucinations, and altered sense of time and space. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| derived from a fungus that grows on rye grass. Produces profound distortions of sensations, feelings, time, and thought. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| derived from the hemp plant cannabis sativa, containing the chemical THC. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a naturally occurring substance that binds to THC receptors in the brain. Marijuana binds to these receptors. |
|
|
Term
| Nature-Nurture Controversy |
|
Definition
| controversy over whether individual differences are the results of genetic endowment or the consequence of learning. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| orderly unfolding of certain patterns of behavior, such as language acquisition or walking, in accordance with genetic blueprints. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| periods in the developmental sequence during which an organism must experience certain kinds of social or sensory experiences in order for normal development to take place. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| process by which certain infant animals, such as ducklings, learn to follow or approach the first moving object they see. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| research design in which groups of subjects of different ages are assessed and compared at one point in time, so that conclusions may be drawn about behavior difference which may be related to age differences. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| research design that evaluates a group of subjects at several points in time, over a number of years, to assess how certain characteristics or behaviors change during the course of development. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| research design that combines elements of the cross-sectional and longitudinal designs. Subjects are observed more than once over a period of time. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the reproductive cells, or sperm and ovum. Also called germs cells. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a strand of DNA that contains the organism's genes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chemical substance whose molecules, arranged in varying patterns, are the building blocks of genes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Twins who share the same genetic code. Also known as one-egg or monozygotic twins. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| twins produced when two ova are fertilized by two different sperm cells, so that their genetic codes are no more similar than those of any other siblings. Also known as dizygotic twins. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| degree to which twins share a trait. Expressed as a correlation coefficient. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| assortment of genes each individual inherits at conception. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| characteristics that result from the expression of various genotypes (for instance, brown eyes). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| genotype that contains different genes for a triat. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| genotype that consists of the same genes for a trait. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| gene that prevails when paired with a recessive gene, so that it is always expressed in the phenotype. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| gene that is expressed in the phenotype only in the absence of a dominant gene, or when it is paired with a similar recessive gene. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| genetic transmission involving genes that are carried only on the X chromosome. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a genetically transmitted disease that progressively destroys brain cells in adults. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| disease caused by a recessive gene that results in the absence of an enzyme necessary to metabolize the milk protein phenylalanine. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chromosomal disorder characterized by marked mental retardation as well as distinctive physical traits including short stature, a flattened skull and nose, and an extra fold of skin over the eyelid. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| first of three stages in prenatal development of a fetus. Spans for two weeks after fertilization. Zygote stage. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| second stage of prenatal development, lasting from the beginning of the third week to the end of the eighth week after fertilization, characterized by fast growth and differentiation of the major body systems as well as vital organs. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| term used to describe an unborn infant during the period from the beginning of the third month after fertilization until birth. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| third and final stage of prenatal development, extending from the beginning of the third month to birth, during which bone and muscle tissue form and the organs and body systems continue to develop. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pattern of physical and motor development that is normal among humans, in which the head and upper portion of the body develop first and most rapidly. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pattern of development normal to humans in which infants gain control over areas that are closest to the center of their bodies (upper arm before fingers) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| infant reflex stimulated by a cheek stroked by a finger or nipple, causing head to turn and mouth to open and begin sucking (9 months) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| infant reflex stimulated by a sudden stimulus like being dropped or a gunshot- baby flattens (3 months) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| infant reflex stimulated by palm being stroked- baby makes strong fist. (2 months) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| infant reflex stimulated by being put face down in water. Baby makes well coordinated swimming movements (6 months) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| conceptual frameworks of memory that individuals use to make sense out of stored information. We use schemas to assimilate and organize processed information. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process by which individuals interpret new information in accordance with existing knowledge or schemas. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process of adjusting existing knowledge and schemas so that new information can fit more readily. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Piaget- period of development between brith and about age two during which infants learn about their worlds primarily through their senses and actions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| realization that objects continue to exist when they are not in view. Key achievement of the sensorimotor stage. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the second major stage of cognitive development (ages 2 to 7). Children can develop only limited concepts, and are unable to evaluate simultaneously more than one physical dimension. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| inability to take into account more than one perceptual factor at a time. Characteristic of preoperational stage. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ability to evaluate two or more physical dimensions simultaneously |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the understanding that changing the form of an object does not necessarily change its essential character. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the tendency of young children to view the world as being centered around themselves. |
|
|
Term
| Concrete Operational Stage |
|
Definition
| ages 7 to 12. children begin to use logical mental operations and rules, mastering the concept of conservation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| stage in which individuals acquire the ability to make complex deductions and solve problems by systematically testing hypotheses. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| intense emotional tie between two individuals, such as an infant and a parent. |
|
|
Term
| Indiscriminate Attachment |
|
Definition
| attachment typically displayed by human infants during the first few months, when social behaviors are directed to virtually anyone. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| highly selective attachment often displayed by human infants between 6 and 18 months when increased responsiveness is displayed toward primary care-givers and distress may be displayed when separated from parents. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| attachment displayed by infants 12 to 18 months, when fear of strangers diminishes and interest in people other than primary caregivers develops. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| parenting style in which parents adopt a hands-off policy, making few demands and showing reluctance to punish inappropriate behavior. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| style of parenting in which parents rely on strictly enforced rules, leaving little room for children to discuss alternatives. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| style of parenting in which parents enforce clear rules and standards but also show respect for children's opinions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Erikson's stage 1- within 12-18 months of life, infants acquire a sense of basic trust if basic needs are satisfied, or a sense of mistrust if needs are not satisfied. |
|
|
Term
| Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt |
|
Definition
| Eriksons stage 2- within 18 months and 3 years, children begin to assert some of their independence and individuality. When this behavior is encouraged, autonomy develops. When this behavior is condemned, shame develops. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Erikson's stage 3- within 3 to 5 years, children whose parents encourage inquisitiveness take initiative to explore, while children who are discouraged experience guilt. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Erikson's stage 4- within 6 to 11 years, children assess themselves in comparison to peers. Positive assessment leads to sense of achievement. Poor assessment leads to feelings of inferiority. |
|
|
Term
| Identity vs Role Confusion |
|
Definition
| Erikson's stage 5- within 12 to 18 years of age, and individual either integrates all of their experiences to form and identity, or fails to do so and experiences role confusion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Erikson's stage 6- adults either form close, intimate, meaningful relationships, or fail to do so and feel a sense of isolation and have trouble becoming close with others. |
|
|
Term
| Generativity vs Stagnation |
|
Definition
| Erikson's stage 7- further alon gin adulthood, either adults focus on achieving aims, finding purpose, and contributing to the well being of others, or else stagnate in personal growth and become self-centered. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Erikson's stage 8- last stage when adults reflect on life, and feel either accomplishment or failure. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an individual's subjective sense of being male or female. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| substance that appears to trigger the transformation of gonads into testes within the first few weeks of prenatal development. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| process during development where male and female characteristics begin to take form. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| individual with ambiguous or contradictory sex characteristics resulting from abnormal differentiation of internal and external sex structures. |
|
|
Term
| Fetally Androgenized Female |
|
Definition
| chromosomally normal female who, as a results of excessive exposure to androgens during prenatal sex differentiation, develops external genitalia resembling those of a male |
|
|
Term
| Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome |
|
Definition
| condition in which the body cells of a chromosomally normal male fetus are insensitive to the action of androgens, with the result that internal reproductive structures do not develop, external genitals fail to differentiate into a penis and scrotum, and testes do not descend. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| set of behaviors that is considered normal and appropriate for each sex in a society. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| process by which society conveys behavioral expectations to an individual, through various agents such as parents, peers, and school. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| approx. two year period of rapid physical changes that occur sometime between ages 7 and 16 in our society and culminate in sexual maturity. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| period of accelerated growth that usually occurs within about two years after the onset of puberty. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hormones released by the pituitary gland that stimulate production of testosterone in men and estrogen in women. |
|
|
Term
| Secondary Sex Characteristics |
|
Definition
| physical characteristics typical of mature males or females-such ad facial, body and pubic hair-that develop during puberty as a result of the release of testosterone or estrogen. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Kholberg's lowest level of moral development- individuals have not internalized a personal code of morality. stages 1 and 2- punishment and obedience (act is moral if rewarded), instrumental orientation (act is moral if satisfies needs) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Kholberg's second level of moral development, in which motivating force for moral behavior is the desire to help others to gain approval, consisting of stages 3 and 4- an act is moral if it pleases/helps others or leads to approval, an act is moral if you are doing your duty/following law to maintain social order |
|
|
Term
| Postconventional Morality |
|
Definition
| Kholberg's third level of moral development in which individuals are guided by values agreed upon by society/ ethical universal principles (stages 5 and 6) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| physiological changes, including menopause, that occur during a woman's transition from fertility to infertility. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cessation of menstruation that takes place during the climacteric. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a condition of low testosterone often attributed to the natural loss of testosterone production in older men. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| intelligence that results from accumulated knowledge, including knowledge of how to reason, language skills, and understanding of technology. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ability to perceive and draw inferences about relationships among patterns of stimuli, to conceptualize abstract information, and to solve problems |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| living together in a sexual relationship without being married |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| potential ability of organs such as the heart, lungs and kidneys to increase their output to a level several times greater than normal under emergency conditions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| collective term describing a variety of conditions sometimes associated with aging, including memory deficits, forgetfulness, disorientation for time and place, declining ability to think, and so forth. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an incurable disease that destroys the neural tissue resulting in an impaired capacity to think, relate to others, and care for oneself. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an environment in which a person has close relatives or personal friends. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an environment lacking social interaction, such as one in which an elderly person lives alone. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| basic, immediate experiences that a stimulus such as a sound elicits in a sense organ such as the ear. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| process of interpreting, organizing, and often elaborating on sensations. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| process by which sensory organs transform mechanical, chemical, or light energy into the electrochemical energy that is generated by neurons firing. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| study of the relationship between the physical aspects of external stimuli and our own perceptions of these stimuli. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| minimum level of intensity or strength of a stimulus that is sufficient to activate a sensory process (for instance, the minimum number of molecules that must be present in the air for us to smell a substance) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| minimum physical intensity of a stimulus that can be perceived by an observer 50-percent of the time. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the minimum difference in intensity that we can distinguish between two stimuli 50 percent of the time (just noticeable difference). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| major principle of sensation based on the fact that for various stimulus intensities, the difference threshold tends to be a constant fraction of the stimulus: As the strength of the original stimulus increases, the magnitude of the change must also increase in order for a just noticeable difference to be perceived. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| psychological selection mechanism that determines which stimuli an organism responds to or perceives. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in perception, the decrease in the response of sensory receptors to stimuli when exposed to continual, unchanging stimulation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| theory that says our ability to detect a sensory stimulus depends not only on the intensity of the signal but also on variables such as distractions and motivation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| intensity of light, measured by the number of photons, or particles of electromagnetic radiation, emitted by a light source. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the color we perceive, determined partly by the wavelength of light and partly by the complex process by which an organism's visual system mixes wavelengths. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| proportion of colored or chromatic light to non-colored or nonchromatic light, which determines how colorful light appears. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the focusing process in which the lens adjusts its shape, depending on the distance between the eye and the object viewed, in order to project a clear image consistently onto the retina. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| thin membrane at the back of the eye containing photoreceptors called rods and cones. The retina functions to record images. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| photoreceptor cells distributed across the inner layer of the retina that are important in peripheral vision and seeing in dim light. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| photoreceptor cells distributed across the inner layer of the retina that play an important role in the perception of color. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| process by which an organism's vision gradually becomes more sensitive to minimal levels of light due to a chemical change in the rods and cones of the retina. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| process by which an organism's vision adjusts to bright lighting, due to a chemical change within the rods and cones of the retina. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| color mixing process that occurs when pigments are mixed, so that when light falls on the colored object some wavelengths are absorbed (or subtracted) and others are reflected. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| color mixing that occurs when lights of different wavelengths simultaneously stimulate the retina, so that color perception depends on the adding or combing of these wavelenghts. |
|
|
Term
| Young-Helmholtz Theory (Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision) |
|
Definition
| the postulation that the human eye contains three types of color receptors (for red, green and blue) which form the basis for our perception of all colors. |
|
|
Term
| Opponent-Process Theory of Color Vision |
|
Definition
| theory that explains color vision based on six primary colors, which are grouped into three pairs (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white). Receptors in the eye are sensitive to specific pairs, and the presence of one member of a pair inhibits vision of the other. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in hearing, the intensity of a sound as measured by decibels. Loudness is determined by the amplitude of a sound wave. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| dimension of hearing that determines how high or low a sound is, measured in hertz. Pitch is determine by the frequency of a sound wave. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| quality of complex sound that is a product of the combination of fundamental frequency and additional frequency components called overtones. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| membrane stretched across the end of the auditory canal that vibrates in response to sound waves- eardrum |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| membrane stretched across the end of the auditory canal that vibrates in response to sound waves- eardrum |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| set of three tiny linked bones (malleus, incus, stapes) in the middle ear that receives a sound stimulus from the tympanic membrane and transfers it to the oval window of the inner ear. Auditory nerve. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| coiled, fluid-filled chamber in the inner ear with two flexible surfaces; the oval window and the round window. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| membrane in the cochlea of the inner ear that vibrates in response to pressure waves, causing auditory hair cells on the adjoining organ of Corti to release neurotransmitters that activate neurons of the auditory nerve. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| structure in the inner ear located directly above the basilar membrane, consisting of auditory hair cells, a tectoral membrane, and cilia. |
|
|
Term
| Place Theory of Pitch Discrimination |
|
Definition
| theory that we discriminate different pitches because sound waves of different frequency displace different regions on the cochlea's basilar membrane. |
|
|
Term
| Frequency Theory of Pitch Discrimination |
|
Definition
| theory that perception of low tones depends on the frequency with which auditory hair cells in the inner ear's organs of Corti trigger the firing of neurons in the auditory nerve. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| related to the frequency theory of pitch discrimination. Postulates that since single auditory neurons cannot fire rapidly enough to enable us to perceive tones in the 1000-4000 Hz range, pitch perception is made possible by groups of interrelated neurons firing in concert. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ability to locate the origins of sounds by differences from ear to ear in variables such as intensity and the time the sound arrives at each ear. |
|
|
Term
| Sensorineural Hearing Loss |
|
Definition
| hearing loss caused by damage to either the hair cells of the inner ear or the auditory nerve. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hearing loss caused by the failure of the outer and middle ear to conduct sound energy to the inner ear's receptors, sometimes due to infection or to buildup of ear wax. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hearing loss caused by the failure of the outer and middle ear to conduct sound energy to the inner ear's receptors, sometimes due to infection or to buildup of ear wax. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| theory that neural gates in the spinal cord allow passage of pain signals to the brain; these gates may be closed by the simultaneous firing of nonpain nerve fibers, so that pain is not perceived. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a peptide neurotransmitter that signals pain from peripheral nerve fibers to the spinal cord. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a class of neurotransmitter substances that function to inhibit the transmission of pain information. Morphine and other opiates act by facilitating endorphin transmission. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a region of the brain stem that controls pain signals sent to higher brain centers. Also receives signals from endorphin-containing neurons for pain anaglesia. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| process by which we structure elementary sensations (such as the sight of lines, brightness, and points) into the objects we perceive. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in perception, the part of an image on which we focus our attention. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in perception, the background against which the figure that we focus on stands. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tendency to organize patterns of stimuli into larger units according to proximity, similarity, and good continuation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| perceptual grouping principle whereby, all else being equal, we tend to organize perceptions by grouping elements that are the nearest to each other. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in perception, the principle that we tend to group elements that are similar to each other. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| perceptual organizing principle that we tend to perceive incomplete figures as complete. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process of focusing on one or a few stimuli of particular significance while ignoring others. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| visual cues for depth or distance, such as binocular disparity and convergence, that depend on both eyes working together. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| distance cues such as linear perspective and height on a plane that can be used with just one eye. |
|
|
Term
| Binocular (Retinal) Disparity |
|
Definition
| the difference in the retinal image of an object as seen from each eye, due to the difference in viewing angles, that provides an important binocular cue for depth. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| binocular distance cue based on the fact that the two eyes must converge or rotate toward the inside to perceive objects closer than about 25 feet. The closer the object, the more rotation is necessary and the more muscle tension created. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| important monocular depth cue based on the fact that objects that are highest on one's plane of view appear to be farthest away. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| important monocular distance cue based on the fact that objects close to us tend to block out parts of objects that are farther away. Interposition. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| important monocular distance cue based on the fact that parallel lines converge when stretched into the distance. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| monocular distance cue based on the fact that objects of the same size appear to be smaller the farther they are from the viewer. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| monocular distance cue based on the fact that textured surfaces (such as a grassy lawn) smoother, denser, and less textured when they are far from the viewer than when they are close. |
|
|
Term
| Aerial (Atmospheric) Perspective |
|
Definition
| monocular distance cue based on the fact that distant objects tend to appear more fuzzy and less clear than those close to the viewer due to dust and haze. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| monocular distance cue based on the fact that moving objects appear to move a greater distance when they are close to the viewer than when they are far away. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the interpretation of sensory information directly by the brain as opposed to perceptual interpretation resulting from cognitive processing. |
|
|
Term
| Gibson's Theory of Direct Perception |
|
Definition
| a theory of perception that argues that all information necessary for perception is available to the sensory system and no cognitive processing is necessary to complete the perceptual process. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sensory information from the environment that is constant from one experience to the next. Texture is invariant because it is always finer at close distances than is at further distances. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| device that produces the illusion of a cliff, allowing researchers to test the ability of animals to perceive and respond to depth cues. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| one form of perceptual constancy. Although the retinal image of an object becomes smaller as the object recedes into the distance (or larger as it approaches), the viewer adjust for this change and perceives the object to be constant in size. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the fact that objects are normally perceived to be constant in size, color or brightness, and shape, despite the fact that their retinal images change according to different conditions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| we perceive objects that we see at night or in poor lighting to be the same brightness as they appear during the day. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| we perceive objects that we see in the dark to be the same color as they appear during the day even though their retinal images change. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| we perceive objects as maintaining the same shape even though their retinal images change when we view them from different angles. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| false or inaccurate perception that differs from the actual physical state of the perceived object. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tendency to see, hear, smell, feel or taste what we expect or what is consistent with our preconceived notions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a form of perceptual set; the tendency to perceive stimuli that are consistent with expectations and to ignore those that are inconsistent. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| natural variations in biological functions, hormonal activity, temperature and sleep that typically cycle every 24 to 25 hours. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an area of the hypothalamus that is located above the optic chiasm. The SCN is also referred to as a biological clock because damage to this area disrupts daily cycles in sleep and other biological functions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Natural, periodically occurring state of rest characterized by reduced activity, lessened responsiveness to stimuli, and distinctive patterns of brain activity. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| state of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, and often associated with dreaming. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| stages of sleep during which rapid eye movements typically do not occur. Dreaming occurs less frequently. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| light sleep that occurs just after dozing off, characterized by brain waves called theta waves. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| stage of sleep that typically follows Stage 1, characterized by brief bursts of brain activity called sleep spindles as well as K-complex responses to stimuli such as noises. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| stage of sleep that typically follows Stage 2 sleep, characterized by an EEG tracing 20 to 50 percent of which consists of delta waves. No eye movements. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| deepest level of sleep, characterized by an EEG tracing exceeding 50 percent delta waves and virtually no eye movements. |
|
|
Term
| Reticular Activating System |
|
Definition
| set of neural circuits extending from the lower brain up to the thalamus that plays a critical role in controlling arousal and alertness. Reticular formation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a group of serotonin-containing neurons extending from the raphe nuclei, located in the pons and medulla, throughout the limbic system and forebrain. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in psychoanalytic theory, the disguised version of the latent content, or true meaning of dreams. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in psychoanalysis theory, the hidden content or true meaning of dreams. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sleep disorder characterized by a consistent inability to get to sleep or by frequent awakenings during sleep. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sleep disorder characterized by falling asleep suddenly and uncontrollably. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| bad dream that occurs during REM sleep |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sleep disorder in which a person suddenly awakens from Stage 4 sleep in a panic, typically with no recollection of a bad dream. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sleep disorder characterized by irregular breathing during sleep |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sleep disorder, also known as somnambulism, characterized by walking in one's sleep during Stage 3 or 4 sleep. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| also referred to as somniloquy, the production of speech or speech sounds associated with sleep without subjective awakeness. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| state of altered consciousness characterized by a deep relaxation and detachment as well as heightened suggestibility to the hypnotist's directives. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| suggestion or instruction to a hypnotized person that motivates that person to perform an action or actions after returning to a normal state of consciousness. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Hilgard's theory of hypnosis in which our behaviors become separated from or dissociated from our awareness |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| relatively enduring change in potential behavior that results from experience. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| learning by making an association between two stimulus events (Pavlovian conditioning) or by learning an association between a response and its consequence (operant conditioning) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| learning that takes place when a neutral stimulus (CS) is paired with a stimulus (UCS) that already produces a response (UCR). After conditioning, the organism responds to the neutral stimulus (CS) in some way. The response to the CS is called a conditioned response (CR). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| learning an association between one's behavior and its consequence (reinforcement or punishment) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| learning that depends on a particular type of perceptual experience during a critical time in development. Examples include imprinting and language learning. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a stimulus that elicits an unlearned response or reflex. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an unlearned response or reflex caused by an unconditioned stimulus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a stimulus that elicits a response only after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a learned response to a conditioned stimulus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process of learning to associate a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus. In operant learning, the process of learning to associate responses with a reinforcer or punisher. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| learning that takes place when the conditioned stimulus is presented before the unconditioned stimulus is presented and continues until the organism begins responding to the unconditioned stimulus. |
|
|
Term
| Simultaneous Conditioning |
|
Definition
| learning that takes place when the conditioned stimulus is presented at the same time as the unconditioned stimulus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| learning that takes place when presentation of the conditioned stimulus begins and ends before the unconditioned stimulus is presented. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| presenting the unconditioned stimulus prior to the conditioned stimulus. Results in little or no conditioning. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process by which a conditioned response is eliminated through repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, the process of eliminating a response by discontinuing reinforcement for it. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction has taken place. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the spontaneous reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction has taken place. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| process by which an organism responds to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus, without undergoing conditioning for each similar stimulus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process by which responses are restricted to specific stimuli. |
|
|
Term
| Second-Order Conditioning |
|
Definition
| a learned association between two conditioned stimuli (CS2-CS1) that can occur following conditioning to CS1 and an unconditioned stimulus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| theory originally proposed by Edward Thorndike that is the foundation of the operant conditioning theory; Behavior followed by reinforcement will be strengthened while behavior followed by punishment will be weakened. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a chart recording of operant responses over time. Time increments are indicated along the horizontal axis and operant responses along the vertical axis. As response rate increases the slope of the record increases. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a stimulus that controls a response by signaling the availability of reinforcement. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| any procedure where an event following a specific response increases the probability that the response will occur. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| any stimulus presented after a response that increases the probability of the response. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| any stimulus that increases the probability of a response through its removal. Example: pounding on the wall may be maintained by the termination of loud noise (negative reinforcer) in an adjoining room. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a stimulus that satisfies a biologically based drive or need such as hunger, thirst or sleep. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a stimulus that takes on reinforcing properties after being associated with a primary reinforcer. |
|
|
Term
| Continuous Reinforcement Schedule |
|
Definition
| the presentation of a reinforcer for each occurence of a specific behavior. |
|
|
Term
| Partial Reinforcement Schedule |
|
Definition
| a schedule that reinforces behavior only part of the time, for example, a ratio or interval schedule. |
|
|
Term
| Partial Reinforcement Effect |
|
Definition
| behaviors that are acquired on partial instead of continuous reinforcement schedules tend to be established more slowly, but are more persistent when no reinforcement is provided. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| partial reinforcement schedule wherein reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| partial reinforcement schedule where reinforcement is provided after an average of a specific number of responses occur. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| partial reinforcement schedule wherein reinforcement is provided or the first response after a specified period of time has elapsed. |
|
|
Term
| Variable Interval Schedule |
|
Definition
| partial reinforcement schedule where opportunities for reinforcement occur at variable time intervals. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a technique in which responses that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior are reinforced, step by step, until the desired behavior occurs. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| learning process wherein an individual acquires a behavior by observing someone else performing that behavior. Observational learning. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a procedure in which the presentation of a stimulus following a response leads to a decrease in the strength or frequency of the response. |
|
|
Term
| Two-Factor Theory of Learning |
|
Definition
| a theory of avoidance learning that involves both classical and operant conditioning. |
|
|
Term
| Cognitive Learning Theory |
|
Definition
| theoretical perspective that attempts to study the role of thinking and memory processes in learning. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| learning that is not demonstrated by an immediately observable change in behavior. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| internal representations of the relationship between events or spatial elements. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| learning process wherein an individual acquires a behavior by observing someone else performing that behavior. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| theory that emphasizes the role of observation in learning. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an increase in the size of a postsynaptic potential to weak stimulus resulting from neuronal changes that underlie learning and memory. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an increase in a neuron's sensitivity to fire following a burst of signals to that neuron's dendrites. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| process or processes of storing newly acquired information for later recall; recall for a specific experience, or the total collection of remembered experiences stored in our brains. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process of perceiving information, then categorizing or organizing it in a meaningful way so that it can be more easily stored and recalled. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| process by which encoded material is retained over time in memory. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| process by which information stored in memory is accessed. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| first system in the 3-step model of memory, in which brief impressions from any of the senses are stored fleetingly, disappearing within a few seconds if they are not transferred to short-term memory. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| immediate recollection of stimuli that have just been perceived; unless it is transferred to long-term memory, information in this memory system is usually retained only momentarily. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| information transferred from short-term to long-term memory may be stored for periods of time from minutes to years-perhaps even indefinitely |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| visual sensory memory, including fleeting impressions of what we see. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| auditory sensory memory; fleeting impressions of what we hear. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| process of grouping items into longer meaningful units to make them easier to remember |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| recall for how to perform skills such as bicycle riding or swimming. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| recall of specific facts, such as information read in a book. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| autobiographical memories about one's own experiences. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| general, nonpersonal knowledge about the meaning of facts and concepts. |
|
|
Term
| Dual-Code Model of Memory |
|
Definition
| theory that memories may be stored either in sensory codes or in verbal codes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| also known as photographic memory, the very rare ability to retain large amounts of visual material with great accuracy for several minutes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| memory system, such as clustering or acrostics, that organizes material in a meaningful way to make it easier to remember. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| mnemonic device involving grouping items into categories. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sentences whose first letters serve as cues for recalling specific information; a mnemonic device. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| meaningful arrangement of letters that provides a cur for recalling information; a mnemonic device. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| system for remembering that involves repeatedly rehearsing information without attempting to find meaning in it. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| system for remembering that involves using mnemonic devices; it is more effective than maintenance rehearsal. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in memory tests, a subject's ability to reproduce information that he or she was previously exposed to. Fill-in-the-blank and essay questions test recall. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in memory tests, a subjects ability to recognize whether he or she has been previously exposed to information. Multiple-choice and true-falst questions test recognition. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| technique for testing memory that involves measuring how much more quickly a person can relearn material that was learned at some previous time. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| technique for memorizing material that involves rehearsing information after it has already been learned. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| memories that you can recall through conscious effort. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| memories that are unavailable to conscious awareness, but contribute to explicit memories. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the presentation of misleading information that leads to people to erroneous reports of that misinformation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| phenomenon wherein recall of particular events, experiences or information is aided by the subject being in the same context or physiological state in which the information was first encoded. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An apparent vivid recall for an event associated with extreme emotion or uniqueness, such as the assassination of a president or the bombing of Iraq. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in memory, the phenomenon that occurs when a later event interferes with the recall of earlier information. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in memory, the phenomenon that occurs when earlier learning disrupts memory for later learning. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| memory deficits caused by altered physiology of the brain, which might result from an accident or physical illnesses. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| memory loss for certain details or events that occurred prior to experiencing brain trauma. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| memory loss for information processed after an individual experiences brain trauma caused by injury or chronic alcoholism. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| information is transferred to long-term memory when new connections between neurons are formed. These changes are thought to involve structural changes in the synapses between neurons, which occur when cell assemblies are simultaneously activated. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an increase in a neuron's sensitivity to fire following a burst of signals to that neuron's dendrites. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a neural representation of a specific memory. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| process by which information is transferred from short-term electrical activation of neuronal circuits to a longer-term memory coded by physical cell changes in the brain. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| any cognitive processes directed toward problem solving, understanding language, memory retrieval, and perceiving patterns in sensory inputs. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| behavior that is unobservable in another person. Thinking is an example of covert behavior. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| refers to perceptual processing beginning in peripheral sensory receptors and then activating higher cortical areas. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| refers to a sequence of neural activation beginning in higher cortical such as the prefrontal cortex before activating brain areas involved in perception. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cognitive categories for grouping events, objects, or processes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| theory that the natural concepts we form in everyday life are structured around prototypes or typical representations of categories (such as robins and jays as protoypes of the concept bird) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| best or most typical representative of a category around which we often structure our concept of that category. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| refers to a failure to use familiar objects or strategies in novel or unfamiliar settings to solve problems. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| problem-solving strategy that involves trying possible solutions, one by one, to see which one is correct. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| problem-solving strategy that involves formulating specific hypotheses that generate relatively efficient approaches to solving a problem, then testing these hypotheses in a systematic fashion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| problem-solving strategy that involves a systematic exploration of every possible solution; computers and people may use algorithms to find the correct answer. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| rule-of-thumb (quick fix) problem solving strategies such as means-ends-analysis and working backward. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| common heuristic problem-solving strategy that involves identifying the difference between an original state and a desired goal, then progressing through a series of subgoals to reach the solution. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| common heuristic problem-solving strategy that starts with describing the goal, then defines the step that directly precedes the goal, and works backward in this manner until the steps needed to reach the goal are defined. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in problem solving, a tendency to approach a problem or situation in a predetermined way, regardless of the requirements of the specific problem. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in problem solving, the tendency to seek out evidence that confirms a hypothesis and to overlook contradictory evidence. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| reasoning that draws broad conclusions by generalizing from specific instances. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| reasoning that begins with a general premise that is believed to be true, then draws conclusions about specific instances based on this premise. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| argument consisting of two or more premises, followed by a statement of conclusion that may or may not follow logically from the premises. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tendency to accept conclusions that conform to one's beliefs, and reject conclusions that do not, regardless of how logical these conclusions are. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| strategy for categorizing an object or situation based on one's preconceived notion of characteristics that are typical of that category. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an incorrect assumption that randomness must result in an increase or decrease in the probability of an event in repeated trials when the event has only rarely or never occurred even though the probability of the event remains the same. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| approach to decision making based on information assessed from memory. It assumes that the probability of an event is related to how frequently it occurred in the past, and that events occurring more frequently are easier to remember. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an emotion and its corresponding feeling attached to possible outcomes of a decision process. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| psychological study of how sounds and symbols are translated to meaning, and of the cognitive processes that are involved in the acquisition and use of language. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| individual sounds-such as those represented by s and sh in the english spelling system- that are the basic structural elements of language. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| smallest unit of meaning in a given language. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the set of language rules that governs how words can be combined to form meaningful phrases and sentences. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| study of meaning in language. |
|
|
Term
| Language Acquisition Device |
|
Definition
| according to the genetic or nativist view, the prewiring that gives humans the inate ability to learn and understand language. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| region of the left frontal lobe that is the primary brain center for controlling speech. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| area of the left temporal lobe that is the brain's primary area for understanding speech. |
|
|
