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the study of present-day societies in non-Western settings
o Culture: learned behavior that is transmitted from person to person |
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| the study of the construction and use of language by human societies |
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| also known as biological anthropology. The study of all aspects of present and past human biology |
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| the study of past human societies- focusing mostly on material remains- and the processes behind past human behavior |
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| the scientific study of the interrelationship between what humans have inherited genetically and culture. |
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| a group of extinct and living bipedal primates in the family Hominidae |
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| Six Big Events of Human Evolution |
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• Bipedalism: walking on two legs. (6 million years ago)
• Nonhoning canine: an upper canine that, as part of a nonhoning chewing mechanism, is not sharpened against the lower third premolar. Also characterized by a lack of the diastema found on the lower jaw in other primates. (5.5 million years ago)
• Material culture: the part of culture that is expressed as objects that humans use to manipulate environments (such as the production and use of stone tools). (2.5 million years ago)
• Speech: expression of complex thoughts and ideas vocally. Enabled by the unique shape of the human hyoid bone. (2.5 million years ago)
• Hunting: the social behavior whereby a group (typically adult men) organize themselves to pursue animals for food (1 million years ago)
• Dependence on domesticated foods: Controlling the life cycles of plants and animals so that those creatures and plants might be used as food. (11,000 years ago) |
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| biological change from generation to generation. Genetic vs. nongenetic environmental change |
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| Five Scientific Disciplines from Which Darwin Drew |
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• Geology: the study of Earth, with regard to composition, activity, and history
• Paleontology: the study of fossils
• Taxonomy: the classification of past and living life-forms
• Demography: the study of population, especially with regard to birth, survival, death; also major factors which influence those three things
• Evolutionary Biology- the study of organisms and their changes |
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| • Adaptive radiation- the diversification of an ancestral group of organisms into new forms that are adapted to specific environmental niches |
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| changes in physical structure, function, or behavior that allow an organism or species to survive and reproduce in a given environment |
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| the specific area of the natural environment in which an organism lives |
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| the basic principles associated with the transmission of genetic material, forming the basis of genetics, including the law of segregation and the law of independent assortment. |
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| the basic unit of inheritance; a sequence of DNA on a chromosome, coded to produce a specific protein. |
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| one or more alternative forms of a gene |
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| the strand of DNA found in the nucleus of eukaryotes that contains hundreds or thousands of genes |
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| deoxyribonucleic acid. A double-stranded molecule that provides the genetic code for an organism, consisting of phosphate, deoxyribose sugar, and four types of nitrogen bases |
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| the actual genetic makeup of an organism |
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| the physical appearance of an organism |
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| Adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine |
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| the proportion of phenotypic variation that is due to inheritance rather than to environmental influence |
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| the complete set of chromosomes for an organism or species that represents all the inheritable traits |
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• Somatic Cells- diploid cells that form organs, tissues, etc.
• Gametes- haploid sexual reproductive cells (ova and sperm), unite with gamete of opposite sex to form a new organism |
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| Production of somatic cells |
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• Homologous Chromosomes- matching pairs of chromosomes, occur within somatic cells, autosomes
• Sex Chromosomes- pair of chromosomes that determine an organism’s biological sex, X and Y |
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| the condition in which an extra chromosome exists with the homologous pair |
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| organic molecules combined into a specific sequence by ribosomes to form a protein; 20 amino acids coded for by human DNA |
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Gas transport proteins- deliver gases to tissues
Antibodies- part of the immune system
Structural proteins- give structure and support to tissues
Hormones- regulate metabolism
Mechanical proteins- carry out specific functions or work
Enzymes- catalyze metabolic reactions
Nutrients- delivered to tissues |
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| sequences of 3 nitrogen bases carried by mRNA that are coded to bring specific amino acids in protein synthesis; also called "triplets"= 1 start codon+ 3 stop codons |
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Structural- responsible for body structures
regulatory- turn other genes on and off (essential for growth and development) |
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| turned on in a sequence, causing correct structure of part of a structure to develop in each region of the body |
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| the location of an allele of gene on a chromosome |
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| presence of 2 or more separate phenotypes for a certain gene in the population |
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| the two alleles for any given gene/trait are inherited, one from each parent; during gamete production, only one of two alleles will be present in each ovum or sperm |
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| Law of Independent Assortment |
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| the inheritance of one trait does not affect the inheritance of other traits |
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| pair of alleles at a single locus of a homologous chromosome are the same |
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| a pair of alleles at a single locus of homologous chromosomes is different |
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| 2 different alleles are equally dominant; both are fully expressed in the phenotype |
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| trait determined by two or more genes |
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| single gene affects more than one trait |
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| the proportion of variation that is genetic. = Genetic variation/ (Genetic variation + environmental variation) |
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| any mechanism that prevents two populations from exchanging genetic material- often why a new species originates |
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| condition where system is balanced and unchanging. Allele frequencies do not change over time |
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| Conditions for the Hardy-Weinberg Law of Equilibrium |
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1) No mutation, natural selection, or gene flow occurs
2) Population is large
3) Mating is random
4) Equal numbers of males and females |
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mutations involving incorrect base pairings. 4 kinds:
1) Nonsense (base substitution)
2) Missense (base sub.)
3) Addition (frameshift sub)
4) Deletion (frameshift sub) |
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mutations involving transposable elements. 4 kinds:
1) Deletion
2) Translocation (to a different chromosome)
3) Inversion (spliced and reattached in wrong order)
4) Duplication |
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| mobile pieces of DNA that can copy themselves into entirely new areas of the chromosome |
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| Three patterns of selection |
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Directional- shifts in one direction. Favors one specific phenotype
Stabilizing- selects against either extreme phenotype
Disruptive- favors extreme phenotypes, can lead to speciation |
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| Two ways new alleles can occur in a population |
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| type of genetic drift where small random genetic changes accumulate in a population that has become isolated from the parent population due to the limited genetic input of the small off-shoot population |
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| inability to digest lactose due to lack of enzyme lactase |
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| common ability to digest lactose, particularly in populations that depended on milk for protein. Intolerance is more common in people whose ancestors did not raise cattle. |
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| Functional responses within particular environmental contexts |
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| Four Levels of Adaptations |
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Genetic adaptations- occur at the population level via natural selection
Developmental Adaptations- adaptations that occur at the level of the individual during a critical period of growth and development
Acclimatizations- occur at the individual level at any time in a person's life.
Cultural adaptations- involve use of material culture to make living possible in certain settings |
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| adaptations that occur over the course of one's life to increase an individual's fitness in the given environment, often associated with extreme environmental conditions |
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| Condition in which body tissues receive insufficient amounts of oxygen. Prevalent in high-altitude regions |
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| Three Stages of the Life Cycle |
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| Theories for Demographic Variation in Skin Color |
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• Photodestruction of Folate- sun destroys folic acidfolatenegative effect on developing fetuses and sperm production, selects for those with dark skin in areas of intense sun
• Vitamin D Production- correlates to sun exposure, selects for those with light skin in areas of weak sun |
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| random change in gene or chromosome creating a new trait |
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| the exchange of alleles between populations |
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| random change in allele frequency between generations, greater effect in small populations |
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| • Three Observations that led to Idea of Natural Selection |
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• Number of adults in a population constant even when organisms had multiple offspring
• Variation exists across the population
• Advantageous variations can be seen more frequently over time |
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