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| scientific study of the atmosphere and weather |
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| the state of the atmosphere at a given time and place; what you get |
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| the sum of all statistical information about weather in a place or region; average; what you would expect |
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1.temperature 1.thermometer
2.humidity 2.hygrometer
3.precipitation 3.gauge
4.pressure 4.barometer
5.wind 5.anemometer and vane
6.radiation(solar) 6.radiometer or pyranometer
7.clouds 7.raDAR |
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is an instrument that sends scientists information on the temperature, pressure and the relative humidity; carried up by a balloon in the lower atmosphere
vertical structure of the atmosphere: |
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| lower most portion of the atmosphere; temperature decreases as height increases; makes up 75% of the atmosphere; nearly all of the water vapor and aerosols; deeper in the tropics than at the poles because gases expand when hotter; all important weather phenomena occur here; pressure decreases with height |
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| temperature increases as height increases; properties of air are independent of turbulence; concentration of ozone which absorbs UV radiation which heats the stratosphere, making it warmer than the troposphere |
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| temperature decreases as height increases; coldest portion of the atmosphere |
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| temperatures increase as height increases; high temperatures, but low pressure; O2 and N2 (oxygen gas and nitrogen gas) absorb solar shortwave energy; low heat content because less molecules moving around, but at a very high speed |
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| Air is a mixture of discrete gases; oxygen gas and nitrogen gas make up 99% of the atmosphere, but are largely irrelevant to weather; CO2 present in small amounts, even less CH4 (methane) |
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| Greenhouse Gases Increasing |
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| CO2 is around 1.2 times or abundant than in the 1960s; CH4 has increased around 50% since the 1970s; CO2 warms less than CH4—20% rise in CO2 is equal to the same amount of warming as a 1% rise in CH4 |
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| 0-4% by volume; sources of all precipitation and clouds; hugely important for the heating of the atmosphere; phase changes- all three phases found naturally on Earth; heat transfer from phase changes; critical energy source for driving storms |
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ejected and suspended particles; transported by atmosphere motions kept aloft; energy
-extreme or unusual values are the upper and lower 12.5% of all observations
-earth’s atmosphere came to have so much oxygen when in its early life as a planet there was essentially none because of the help of plants. Plants took the excess CO2 and turned it into oxygen through photosynthesis. |
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tropic of Cancer (23 ½ degrees North
longest day is summer solstice, winter solstice
of Capricorn (23 ½ degrees south |
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| the capacity to do work; potential energy-stored work; kinetic energy-motion |
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| how warm relative to some standard; average kinetic energy of molecules of an object; when gains energy then molecules move faster |
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| Heat not evenly distributed over the Earth; differs with latitude, seasons, and time of day; this unequal heating contributes to forming winds and ocean currents |
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| transfer of energy because of temperature difference between an object and its surroundings; flows from high to low until equal; to heat takes internal energy increasing molecular motion |
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| Mechanisms of Energy Transfer: |
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Convection
Conduction
Radiation |
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| movement of molecules through a medium; fluid, air |
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| energy transfer through the touching of to objects; contact |
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| waves of heat/energy transferring with out the need of a medium; emission and propagation of energy in forms of waves or particles and through some material or space; spread across a wide range of electromagnetic spectrum; waves of different sizes (frequency/wavelength) |
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Definition
1. All objects emit unless at absolute zero
2. Hotter objects emit more energy (Stefan-Boltzman Law)
3. Hotter objects emit in shorter wavelengths (Weins Law)
4. Good absorbers are good emitters; can be wavelength specific; a theoretical black body is perfect across all wavelengths |
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| What happens to incoming solar radiation? |
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Definition
Absorbed- molecules vibrate faster and temperature increases
Transmitted- passes through the object
Redirected- reflection (same angle and same intensity) or scattering (multiple lines, different angles, and less intensity) |
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reflections off of surfaces on Earth of UV radiation; solar heating is 70% of solar radiation; water and snow are a major part of the reflections of solar radiation off of earth.
-Daytime sky is blue because of the gas molecules scatter short wavelengths of visible light, which are blue and purples therefore the shorter waves scatter across the sky making the sky appear to be blue during the daytime. |
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| helps to keep the Earth’s surface warm; as the Earth absorbs short wave radiation from the sun, long waves are re-emitted from the Earth. The long wave radiation is then absorbed by the gases in the atmosphere (greenhouse gases- H2O, CO2, CH4) then redirects some of the radiation absorbed back down towards the Earth’s surface |
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| fractional absorption; varies with wavelength; gases with high absorption help to heat the atmosphere |
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1. Incoming energy=outgoing energy
2. Short wave incoming radiation passes through the atmosphere and is absorbed by the surface
3. Becomes reradiated as outgoing long wave radiation (OLR)
4. Atmosphere absorbs this OLR well
5. Winds and the ocean; redistribute energy from equator to poles. |
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Definition
1. Latitude
2. Land-Water
3. Ocean Currents
4. Altitude
5. Geographic position (Wind Patterns and Air Masses)
6. Cloud cover and Albedo |
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| land and water react to solar heating differently; land heats up and cools off faster than water does; interiors of continents will be warmer in summer and colder in winter than the coasts; oceans moderates the temperatures; less annual range at maritime regions and lag in temperature highs and lows compared to inner regions of a continent because of the ocean lags in cooling and heating |
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-powered by the Sun’s energy
-drives evaporation into atmosphere
-moisture and associated energy is carried by winds
-precipitation and dew return water back into the cycle
-some runoff; evaporation and transpiration-energy from land |
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Definition
-all three found naturally on Earth- ice (solid), water (liquid), water vapor (gas)
-low kinetic energy in solid and high kinetic energy in gas
-ice to water and water to water vapor and ice to water vapor requires energy; water to ice and gas to water and gas to ice releases energy; add energy breaks molecular attractions |
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| term for how much energy is required or released by a phase change; “hidden” heat (energy) |
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the amount of water in air
absolute humidity= mass of water vapor(g)/volume of air(m^2)
mixing ratio= mass of water vapor(g)/mass of dry air(g) |
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| Humidity for a Rising Parcel of Air: |
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| -parcels expand as they rise -volume changes, therefore absolute humidity changes , however mass will stay the same. |
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| Vapor Pressure and Saturation: |
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Definition
Measure of water vapor is its pressure exerted on air; partial pressure
-parcels with more water vapor exert more pressure
-amount of how much water vapor a parcel can hold is determined by the parcel’s temperature; if water is available and in contact with air in a closed system, air will demand water until it is saturated and at equilibrium |
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| when air cannot hold more water |
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| saturation vapor pressure |
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Definition
| vapor pressure exerted by water molecules for air in a saturated state; the amount of water vapor needed to saturate a certain mass |
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| - ratio of actual to potential absolute humidity; actual humidity(g/kg)/the amount of water need to be saturated(g/kg); expressed in a percent |
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| to change relative humidity? |
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Definition
-add or subtract moisture (numerator)
-add or subtract temperature (denominator) |
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| Why is relative humidity the highest just before sunrise and lowest around midday? |
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Definition
-saturation levels change with the temperature; hotter the harder/more moisture is needed to become saturated
-relative humidity is inversely proportional to temperature
-relative humidity is directly proportional to moisture content (mixing ratio) |
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| Why is relative humidity the highest just before sunrise and lowest around midday? |
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Definition
-saturation levels change with the temperature; hotter the harder/more moisture is needed to become saturated
-relative humidity is inversely proportional to temperature
-relative humidity is directly proportional to moisture content (mixing ratio) |
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| the temperature to which a parcel must be cooled in order to reach a condition of saturation; actual humidity defines what dew point temperature will be; to find look at the saturation curve- move from point to the left until hits the curve and down to read the temp at that point on the curve. |
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| an instrument used to measure relative humidity and dew point; two bulbs- wet and dry; wet bulb records heat carried away by evaporation with the wind from spinning it(relative humidity- if there is a condition of saturation in the air around then less-no water will evaporate)- if more heat is carried away then the air around is more dry; the difference between the wet and dry bulb readings is the dew point of the air |
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| Air parcels sinking and rising because: |
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Definition
-air parcels have the tendency to sink when they are more dense, have less buoyancy, and is cool than the are surrounding it; parcels sinking heat up
-air parcels have the tendency to rise when they are less dense, have a high buoyancy, and if they are warmer than the air surrounding it; parcels rising cool off
NO ENERGY IS ADDED OR SUBTRACTED; but pressure is changing as sinking and rising |
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| The Four Mechanisms of Lifting: |
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Definition
1. Oragraphic Lifting – geographic barrier causing lifting (ex: mountains); air is forced to rise over a topographic barrier
2. Frontal Wedging
3. Convergence – horizontal air flow piles up and is forced upward
4. Localized Convective Lifting |
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| altitude when the parcel reaches its dew point temperature; saturation pressure; only changes if the amount of moisture in the air changes |
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| Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR) |
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Definition
| parcel’s cooling with rise occurs independently of the surrounding air (ELR); The ELR is the temperature profile of the surrounding air |
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| air’s tendency to rise, sink, or stay where it is; controlled by parcel’s temperature compared to its surroundings; measure of the ELR compared to dry and wet adiabatic rates of parcel temperature differences indicates stability; parcel that is cooler-sinks- stable condition; parcel that is warmer-rises- unstable condition |
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| Three Cases of Stability: |
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Definition
1. Absolute Stability – the tendency to resist rise of air parcel; ELR < wet adiabatic rate of cooling (WAR)
2. Absolute Instability – the tendency to enhance rise of air parcel; ELR > dry adiabatic rate of cooling (DAR)
3. Conditional Instability – both tendencies of sinking and rising present, but at different heights of elevation |
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| Three Cases of Stability: |
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Definition
1. Absolute Stability – the tendency to resist rise of air parcel; ELR < wet adiabatic rate of cooling (WAR)
2. Absolute Instability – the tendency to enhance rise of air parcel; ELR > dry adiabatic rate of cooling (DAR)
3. Conditional Instability – both tendencies of sinking and rising present, but at different heights of elevation |
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| Which rate of cooling is faster? Why? |
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Definition
| dry rate (10 degrees C/km) because during the wet rate (varies according to specific air parcel- less than 10 degrees) more energy is lost during condensation; this is because its above the Lifting Condensation Level |
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| visible aggregate of minute droplets of water, or tiny crystals of ice or a mixture of both |
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| Two Necessary Conditions For Cloud Formation: |
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Definition
1. Saturation
2. Surface for condensation |
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| Classification of Clouds Based on: |
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Definition
1. Form: Cirrus- “filament like” in latin; high, light, thing, white, wispy
Cumulus- globular individual cloud masses, flat base towering “cauliflower like”
Stratus- layer or sheets; cover sky more continuously, no distinct cloud unit
2. Height: low 2km; middle 4km; high 6km |
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| low temperature; small water vapor source; thin, white, wispy (ex: cirrocumulus, cirrostratus, cirrus) |
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| prefix “alto”; typically composed of water droplets (ex: altocumulus, altostratus) |
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| stratus can produce light rain; nimbostratus are dark and think produce large amount of rain- Frontal lifting or convergence- stable air (ex: Nimbostratus, stratus, stratocumulus) |
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| unstable air!; cumulus- puffy, clear days, unequal surface heating; cumulonimbus- upper part can be ice, spread out on top, top of troposphere, huge clouds; lenticular clouds- oragraphic lifting and turbulent flow off air and produces stationary lenticular clouds, oval shaped |
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| types of fogs formed by cooling it |
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Definition
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| longwave radiation cooling; night time phenomenon; requires clear skies and high relative humidity; forms in places where cold dense air sinks into a landscape low; dissipates right after sunrise |
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| warm moist air being blown over a cloud surface; chilled by surface and reaches dew point |
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| adiabatic cooling of moist air to its dew point from wind that blows upslope |
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| Fogs Formed by Adding Moisture Content |
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1. Steam Fog – cool air over warm water adds moisture and bringing to saturation; evaporation from the water surface saturates the air; most likely to occur in seasonal fall
2. Frontal Fog “rain fog” – rain from frontal wedging with the rain evaporating in the air before it reaches the surface; where surface air tends to be cold and almost saturated |
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| condensation of water vapor onto objects that are radiatively cooled to below the air temperature; grass transpiring creates locally high humidity pockets |
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| NOT FROZEN DEW; direct deposition from gas to solid; dew point of air below freezing |
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| Necessary Conditions for Precipitation: |
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1. Saturation – cooling from lifting
2. Condensation – phase change (release of energy) and particle to form on
3. Accumulation to precipitable size – big enough to fall and be a rain droplet |
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| Mechanisms of accumulation: |
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Definition
Bergen Process; water in all 3 phases- ice has stronger affinity for gaseous water vapor than liquid droplets do, thus ice attracts water droplets and accumulates
-Collision-Coalescence; large condenstation nuclei-particles which condensation occurs; large droplets fall and collide with smaller droplets; chain reaction; roughly 2mm size droplets needed to fall and reach the surface without evaporation |
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| Thermals and circulation of heat or water |
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Definition
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| What 3 things happen to incoming solar radiation? |
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Definition
1 Absorbed
2 Transmitted
3 Redirected (reflection and scattering). |
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| Hidden or stored. Needed to make a phase change |
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| How saturated the air is vs how much it can hold in relation to the dew point |
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Definition
Solid to Gas= Sublimination
Gas to Solid= Deposition
Liquid to gas= evaporation
Gas to liquid= Condensation |
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Expanding air
compressed air |
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Definition
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| Rate of cooling DAR & WAR |
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Definition
Orographic
Frontal wedging
Convergence
LCL |
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1 Absolute stability
2 Absolute instability
3 Conditional instability |
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Definition
1 prevents a parcel from rising
2 Causes parcel of air to rise.
3 Both tendencies present |
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| Precipitation occurs when |
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| Saturation and condensation are present |
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| crystal growth in clouds is called the |
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| Bergeron process. Ice has affinity for water vapor |
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| Collision of water droplets in a cloud |
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Definition
| Coalescence: Chain reaction of cloud collision |
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| Rain that never reaches the surface due to evaporation |
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Definition
| Supercooled raindrops freeze on contact |
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| Supercooled fog: freezes on contact |
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| what is the greenhouse effect? |
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Definition
| Gases that trap radiation on the troposphere to make earth inhabitable |
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| winter and summer solstices |
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