Interdiciplinary (also uses geography, biology, chemistry, ecology, physics, etc) study of rapidly increasing human populations, use and abuse of resources, pollution, disturbance and the effects on other species.

Mostly, Envi Sci studies how to remedy human caused effects on the environment 

Ecology

The study of the interrelationships of organisms and their environment. It is mostly a biological area of study but also includes chemistry, computer science, mathematics, physics and geology.

• *environmental issues aren't as core to the discipline*
• This discipline uses an ecosystem approach which envi sci also adopts: biosphere, landscape, community, population, organism.

Viewing an ecosystem as being composed of intimately connected and mutually dependent populations, species, communities, and environments instead of viewing them as random and separate

1)Biosphere: living part of the Earth

2)Landscape: physical land type

3)Community: group of populations

4)Population: group of oganisms of the same type

5)Organism: individual

Why are humans considered as part of  ecosystems? (4)

1) we depend on natural systems/cycles for life

2) We rely on the environment for resources

3) We interact with ecosystems, and

4) We potentially affect those systems

a generic term that is used to describe one or more communities of organisms that are interacting with their environment as a defined unit. Often categorized hierarchically from smallest to largest...

individual organism, population, speicies, communities, biomes, biosphere....

an aggregation of individuals and populatgions that can potentially interbreed and produce fertile offspring.

Circumstances/elements in an environment that may constrain the development and productivity of individuals, populations and communities.

*Disturbances may stress organisms, communities, etc and may be caused by humans or nature*

2 types: natural (nutrients, moisture and temperature) and anthropogenic (disturbances related to resource extraction, pollution, etc)

1) Environmental factors: stress of an organism due to access (or change in access) to moisture, nutrients, temperature

i.e. drought (moisture), heatwave/coldwave (temp), eutrification (nutrients)

2) natural disturbance: episode of distruction affecting a particular area that can be large scale (macro disturbance) or small scale (microdisturbance)-- i.e. flood (large), spot fire (small)

3) Succession: The regrowth of a species after a disturbance-- note: a disturbance may dsetroy much of a dominant speciec in an area and a quicker spread species may then succeed in these area as a result.

changes to the ecosystem by human activity.

1) Harvesting: Use if resource by humans to suit human needs-- i.e. logging

2) Pollution: adding waste to an ecosystem -- i.e. water pollution

3) Converting Ecosytstems: chnage of an ecosytem to another -- i.e. industry

** technological advance is part of the reason anthropogenic stressors are affecting ecosystems at the magnitude they are**

technology affects the magnitude with which we stress the evironment...

Rememer IPAT: Impact= People x Affluence x Technology

Humans and their activities are endangering species and natural ecosystems on such a tremendous scale and at such a tremendous rate that the integrity of earth's life-support systems is at risk....

... there is a possibility that the damage is beyond what can be repaired

... It isn't 100% that it will be fixable or not, however most experts agree that it will get worse before getting better.

3 major issues:

1) Population: BR increasing and DR decreasing causes increase in deforestation, desertification, etc *specially due to poverty of many people*

2) Resources: Overmining of non renewable resource and lack of renewable options may lead to extinction of resources

3) Environmental quality: The effect of anthropogenic pollution and disturbance on ecosystems

Perceptions of value (merit or importance) related to the environement...

A)     Utilitarian value: values based solely on if and how much they benefit humans (materially )

B)      Ecological value: value based partly on the needs of humans and also on those of other species, usually cultural and socially determined. (author considers them to be more subjective than utilitarian values)

moral guidelines concerned with present generations preserving resources and livelihoods for future generations as well as for other species, thus a mandate to function in a sustainable way.

World views are comprehensive philosophies of human life and the natural world, some important ones:

1)      Anthropocentric world view: Humans are the center of moral consideration upon which all others are separate from and judged against.

2)      Biocentric: living entities are the center and all living organisms have intrinsic value, and humans possess unique qualities but are no more valuable than any other species.

3)      Ecocentric: The direct and indirect connections of species within ecosystems are the most important, as well as inorganic entities. Incorporates the biocentric worldview but goes beyond it by stressing the importance of interdependent ecological functions.

4)      Frontier: Humans have the right to exploit natural resources provided they do not harm other humans.

5)      Sustainability: humans must have the access to natural resources but the exploitation of those resources should be governed by appropriate ecological, aesthetic and intrinsic values.

a)      Spaceship worldview: a type of sustainability worldview that asserts that humans can use only the resources they need and safely fly spaceship earth.

b)      Ecological sustainability: considers humans within an ecological context and focuses on sustaining all elements of Earth’s life-support systems by preventing any human actions that would degrade them.

Impact formula devised by Paul Ehrlich (American Ecologist) where Impact of humans on the biosphere is a measure of population size and resource consumption:

Impact= Pop size x Affluence per captia x Technology per capita

*Thus, environmental crisis is due to overpopulation and excessive resource consumption*

systematic study if the character and behaviour  of the physical and biological world, rapidly expanding knowledge about the natural world.

3 tools:

1. observation

2. experimentation

3. logic: Combining observation anf experimentation to come ot a conclusion about the natural world.

Conclusions are objectively developed from the accumulating of evidence of experience and the results of experiments.

KEY: Need good data

Drawing conclusions from logical assumptions i.e.

one or more initial assumption and then drawing logical conclusions based on those premises.

(if one assumption is incorrect the validity of the conclusions as a whole is jeopardized)

Fact: somehting that is known to be true

Hypothesis: proposed explanation of the occurence of a phenomena

Theory: broad term describing a set of laws, rules or explanations

• can be disproved by new evidence (facts)
• Can never give absolute proof of the truth of a theory!!!

1. begins with the identification of a question involving the structure or function of the natural world, which is often developed using inductive logic.

2. The question is interpreted in terms of existing theories and specific hypothesis are formulated to explain the character and causes of the natural phenomenon.

3. Hypotheses are rejected if they are found to be inconsistent or untrue and those that are viable are retested through additional research.

4. Once a significant body of evidence supports a prediction it may be used to support the original theory.

Question is posed about the natural world

• Potential answers become hypotheses
• introduction if a null hypothesis (i.e. one that denies an aspect of the hypothesis)
• Experiments are conducted in order to attempt to disprove the hypothesis
• Experiment is repeated until the hypothesis is corrected

*Not value free as all research is based off of interpreted data, and is corruptable by the social and political environment

**Not all research follows this framework, but most research must account for variables in the natural world that cannot be controlled

test or investigation that is designed to provide evidence in support of, or preferably against, a hypothesis.

Natural Experiment: conducted by observing actual variations of phenomena in nature, and then developing explanations for them by analysis of possible causal mechanisms.

Manipulative Experiment: involve the deliberate alteration of factors that are hypothesized to influence phenomena. These manipulations are carefully planned in order to determine whether predicted responses will occur, thereby uncovering causal relations.

Science is inherently uncertian due to....

1) Predictability: Many uncontrolled variables that may affect the repeatebility

2) Variability: It is not practical to account for an area over a large temporal frame

Below the Crust, but above the Mantle the lithosphere is:

• 80km thick and made up of rigid, relatively light rocks, especially basaltic, granitic, and sedimentary ones.
• Many of the elements in these rocks contain elements form the mantel but also enriched aluminum, carbon, calcium, potassium, sodium, sulphur and other light elements.

a less dense region enclosing the core that is about 2800 km thick made up of lighter minerals (mostly silicon, oxygen and magnesium in various mineral compounds) in a plastic like state called magma.

The outermost layer which is about 10-15km thick in the oceans and 20-60km as continental crust. Compared to the mantel and especially the core, the crust is extremely complex mineralogically with the most abundant elements being oxygen (45%), silicon (27%), aluminum (8%), iron (5.8%), calcium (5.1%), magnesium (2.8%), sodium (2.3%), potassium (1.7%),  titanium (0.86%), vanadium (0.17%), hydrogen (0.14%), phosphorous (0.1%), and carbon (0.032%).

**Made up of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks**

The study of the three rock types that make up the crust: (orgnaized from easiest to erode to hardest)

1) Sedimentary: includes rocks like limestone, dolomite, shale, sandstone and conglomerates; these rocks form when particles from other rocks are compressed and lithified (turned into rocks) by the pressure of the ocean. Usually these rocks overlie Basaltic and granitic rocks.

2) Igneous Rock: Formed by molten rock solidifying...Include rocks like Basalt and Granite, they are formed by the cooling of molten magma. Basalt is dark, heavy, fine grained and forms much of the oceanic crust, whereas granite rocks form most of the continental crust and are usually coarse grained, light in colour and density...

3) Metamorphic Rock: formed from igneous and sedimentary rocks that were changed under the combined influences of geological heat and pressure. (marble is derived from limestone, slate form shale)

Circulation of magma under the surface of the earth which moves crustal plates and may split, form trenches and be subducted  under other plates...

***Causes volcanoes and earthquakes

extensive advance of ice sheets, caused by a period of extended global cooling sometimes known as an ice age. These ice sheets move extensive amounts of debris around and when they retreat they may leave behind distinct lanforms dependening on the undelying rock... Some examples:

1. moraines: series of long, mounded hills, usually lying perpendicular to the glacier's flow and containing mixed rocky debris known as till
2. drumlins: teardrop-shaped hills that are elongated in the direction of movement of the glacier and composed of a mixture of rocky materials
3. eskers: long, serpentine mounds of crudely sorted debris deposited by rivers running beneath the glacier.
4. erratics: rounded boulders that can be incongruously scattered over the landscape
5. fjords: long narrow, steep sided inlets of the ocean
6. outwash plains: contain a rocky mixture that was deposited over a relatively wide area by streams and rivers fed by glacial metlwaters.  

weathering involves sediment staying in its place (rain, wind, temp change, freeze-thaw cycle, plant roots) and erosion involves the removal of sediment (flowing water, ice, wind, and gravity)

Examples:

Erosion: River carries sediment from one point to another

Weathering: water seeps into the cracks of a rock and as it freeezes, expands and forces the crack to widen...

Influenced by 7 factors:

animal influence, wind, rock hardness, waterflow, vegetation cover, slope, storm events)

the portion of the planet that contains H2O, including the Oceans, the atmosphere, the land surface, and underground.

the sum of all of the process that involve the cycling of water through and between the oceans, atmosphere, land and underground.

**There is a finite amount of h2o in the hydrologic cycle, so we must examine the effect of humans on each part of the cycle**

1. Ocean: largest with 97.4% of all the water on the planet
2. Surface waters: occur on Earth's landmass and account for 2.3% of Earth's water, most of which is tied up in glaciers. Only .0002% is in lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and other surface bodies of water.
3. Groundwater: .032% either present in shallow soil horizons (available for plants), draining into lakes or other surface waters or the ocean. Or it may move into porous rock to form aquifers (artesian resevoirs)
4. Atmospheric Water: 0.001% occuring as either solid (ice crystals) or vapour. max amount of water a volume of air can hold is due to warmer temps.  humidity  refers to concentration fo water in the atmosphere (g/m³) while relative humidity expresses humidity as a percentage of its total saturation value for a specific temp.

1)      Evaporation: a change in state of water from a liquid to a gas, or from a solid to a gas (sublimation). 86% of evaporation comes from the oceans.

.

The envelope of gases that surrounds the planet and is held in place by attractive forces of gravity, with a greater density at lower altitudes.

It contains 4 layers:

troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere.

(N₂) Nitrogen 78%

(O₂) Oxygen 21%

(Ar) Argon 0.9%

(CO₂) CArbon Dioxide 0.038%

*The rest is trace amounts of toxic chemicals such as Ozone (O₃) and sulphur dioxide (SO₂) as wellas water vapour*

1) Troposphere: 85-90% of the atmospheric mass and extends from the surface to 8-20km above and air temperature decreases rapidly with altitude, convection currents (wind) are common and the troposphere is also known as the “weather layer.”

2) Stratosphere: extends from the troposphere to as high as about 50 km, the air temperature is more or less consistent and there are little in the way of convective currents.

3) Mesosphere: extends from stratosphere to about 75 km.

4) Thermosphere: extends to 450 km.

 *Outer space: a region where earth’s atmosphere exerts no detectable chemical or thermal influences.*

prevailing atmospheric conditions of temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind speed and direction, insolation, visibility, fog, and cloud cover in a region. Data is compiled as statistics and used to determine more or less “normal” parameters.

*Prevailing conditions*

short-term meteorological conditions and is much more variable than climate.

*immdeiate meteorological conditions*

Slope: the closer a surface is to perpendicular to the source, the more radiation absorbed

Aspect: the direction a slope faces will affect the amount of radiation absorbed as well.

*This means there may be distinct microclimates where specific species may flourish and not others*

Macro: climate varying on a large scale and affecting nature in a large area i.e.-- long cool winters and short dry summers

Micro: smaller climate variation due to topography, distance to the ocean, etc.

fundamental physical entity defined as the capacity of a body or system to accomplish work

Measured in:

Joules {motion}: (how much energy is needed to move a 1KG mass at 1m/s² for 1 m)

Calorie {heat}: 4.184 J (the amount of energy needed to rasie the temp of 1g of pure water by 1C^o)

*^{Note: one dietary calorie is actually 1000 Calories in this sense, more commonly known as a KJ (Kilojoule)*} 

Associated with photons which are either particles or waves that travel through space at speed of light (3x10⁸m/s). Exists from smallest to longest (gamma, xray, uv, visible, infrared, microwave, radio) human eye can only detect between 0.4-0.7 mm

Associated with motion

1) Mechanical Kinetic energy: motion of objects; determined by mass and speed

2) Thermal Kinetic energy: rate of vibration of molecules -273C = no movement

Stored ability to do work -- must be transformed-- and may be transformed to kinetic and electromagnetic energy simultaneously, not just one!

1) Gravitational: results from attractive forces between objects

2) chemical: stored in bonds between atoms within molecules, can be released in exothermic reaction-- leads to thermal release i.e. gasoline

3) electrical: differences in quantity of electrons-- flow from high to low density, measured in voltage

4) compressed gas: expansion of gas

Joule: energy required to accelerate 1kg mass at 1m/s² (movement)

Calorie: (4.184 J) amount of energy required to raise the temp of 1g of water by 1 C.... 1 food calorie is 1000 calories  (Heat)

Universal Laws of Physical Energy Behaviour

1st law: Conservation of energy: energy can be niether created nor detroyed, only transformed.

2nd law: Transformations of energy result in degredation to less useful forms

the rates of energy input and output as well as the internal transformations among its varous states

***Globallly referred to as a flow through system because no net energy is stored, only input (absorbed) and output (reflected).

Reflection: atmosphere+surface= 30%

Absorption by atmosphere= 25%

Absorption by surface= 45%

A) Evaporation of water due to thermal energy 1: from lakes and rivers, streams, soil and other non living and 2: from living sources (transpiration) from plants and animals

B) melting of snow and ice

C) Wind and water currents: temperature gradient causes mass to move around the globe

D) Biological fixation: less than 0.02% is absorbed by chlorphyll and used for photosynthesis

1) Autotrophs: synthesize their complex biochemicals using simple inorganic compounds and external sources of energy. These are primary producers because they formt he biological foundation of ecological productivity.

A) photoautotrophs: ise sunlight as external energy (most autotrophs are this)

B) Chemoautotrophs: use chemosythesis

2) Hetrotrophs: Rely on other organisms to supply energy

A) herbivores- primary consumers

B) Carnivores, omnivores and detrivores are secondary consumers

Total fixation of solar energy by primary producers in an ecosystem, minus respiration (the physiological processes needed to sustain and grow)

NPP= GPP-R

linear models of feeding relationships among species

1st law of thermodynamics: competitors convert energy from consumed

2nd law: each organism receives only 10% of the degraded energy from the animal before it....

Any chemicals required for the proper functioning of organisms... autotrophs use inorganic nutrients and heterotrophs use organic nutrients

macronutrients are macro nutrients that are needed by plants in large quantities called  such as Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, magnesium, clacium, sulphur and potassium 

micronutrients are those needed in smaller quantities like booron, chlorine, copper and iron

macronutrients are macro nutrients that are needed by plants in large quantities called  such as Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, magnesium, clacium, sulphur and potassium 

micronutrients are those needed in smaller quantities like booron, chlorine, copper and iron

Area which stors quantities of materials, commonly expressed in units of mass per unit of surface area...

There are 4 major compartments in nutrientr cycles:

1) the atmosphere (gases, particulates and vapours)

2) Soil and Rock compartment(insoluble materials)

3) Organic compartment (living autotroph biomass, living hetertorph biomass-- herbivore, carnivore ominvore and detrivore--, and dead biomass)

4) Available nutrient compartment (Chemical that organisms can absorb from their environment)

A limiting factor is any environmental factor that restricts the ecological niche of an organism.

Limiting factors are based on the law of supply and demand. Those factors (resources) whose supply is less than demand can influence the distribution of species within a community. Examples of limiting factors include soil, minerals, temperature extremes, and water availability.

Parent materials: rocks and minerals that occur within a meter or two of the surface (most parent material in S.Alberta is till leftover from glacial movement) mostly a combination of silt, sand or clay

Organic material: input of litter from plants is a food substance for fungus, bacteria and animals whcih then process the litter into Co2, h20 and inorganic nutrients. Some of the remaining complex organic matter is called humus

Climate: precipitation and  temperature has an effect on the soil...

for example leaching is a process where water dissolves chemical from the parent material and pulls them downward which affects the chemistry and mineraology in shallow and deep levels of the soil..

rocks and minerals within a metere or two of the surface

can be either silt, sand of clay or a mixture more than one or all of the above.

Each has diiferent texture and thus different potentials to hold nutrients, water and oxygen

as soils devlop they form a vertical stratification with distinguishable layers caled horizons. From surface downward:

1) (L)itter: organic material

2) (F)ermentation/duff layer: partly decomposed organic material, some visible litter

3) (H)umus layer: well dcomposed organic matter woth few identifiable fragments

4) (A₁) Transitional A Horizon: high organic concentration mixed woith inorganic materials

5) (A₂ or A_e) Eluviated A Horizon: light colour with low organic material and has some leached minerals from upper layers

6) (B) Accumulation horizon: darker colour because of clay, iron and organic matter leached from A horizon

7) (C) Parent Material layer: little influence from soil development

8) (R) Regolith: underlying rock

Chernozen: A fertile soil known as black earth

Forms in cool temperate climates with enough rainfall to support tall grass, and mixed grass prarie. Has thick, blackish, organic rich A-Horizon, rich in calcium carbonate. The B horizon is lihgter coloured again rich in calcium carbonate.

Regesol: Develops under various climactic conditions from poorly consolidated parent materials such as sand or silt. Has littel profile development.

Solonetz: Develops in semi desert to arid climates under moderate drainage and somewhat saline conditions that support salt-tolerant plants. Has thin surface layer over a darker alkaline horizon.

Carbon is one of the basic building blocks for life and the most abundant element in organisms accounting for 50% of typical dry biomass.

Overall the amount of CO2 released through repiration and decomposition is similar to the amount absorbed by biota, however human activity has recently upset the balance woth increased CO2 and CH4 (methane) release

Atmospheric CO2 is a critical nutrient for photosynthetic organisms which use it to support their respiration...

Atmospheric CO2 also dissolves into the Ocean as the bicarbonate ion HCO_{^{3- Which is used by algae for respiration and growth}}

Forests as well as soils, oceans and the atmosphere store carbon, which moves among those different stores over time. Consequently, forests can act as sources or sinks at different times: Sources release more carbon than they absorb while sinks soak up more carbon than they emit

Another important nutrient for most organisms, nitorogen is used for nucleic acids, amino acids and proteins.

• This process is dependent on nitrogen fixation (most organisms cannot break the N2 bond), ammonification (decay of biomass/return of organic nitrogen), nitrification (aerobic/adding of oxygen) and denitrification (anaerobic/return to the atmosphere) to cycle nitrogen through atmospheric and biological compartments. 

• Like the carbon cycle the most significant amount of nitrogen is in the atmospheric compartment, however N2 (nitrogen gas) is non reactive and must be converted to NH3 (ammonia) by microorganisms in a process called nitrogen fixation. It is also important to note that this process may be non-biological through human creation of ferticlizer (N2 + H2 from CH4) or combustion of fossil fuels (NO gas) or lightning  
• through a process called ammonificaiton, when an organism dies the organic nitrogen in the dead organism must be converted to ammonia (NH3) and then combined with (H+) to form ammonium (NH4+), where other decomposers can turn it into nitrite (NO2-) and another again into nitrate (NO3-).
• Denitrification:Again more microbes dinitrificate it into N2 gas or N2O and release it into the atmosphere... Consequently most of the nitrogen cyle takes place in the soil. 

*This process is also in rough balance, however human activity thows this off*

*This is Why the Soil is so important*

Because Nitrogen is not concentrated in rocks, the atmospheric compartment contains the most important supply of N2, however most organisms cannot break down in this form so...

Biological: microorganisms converth N2 into NH3 (ammonia) gas which can them be used by many organisms. This is done by:

• Microbes called Rhizobium, which live in specialized roots of legumious plants such as peas and beans or other microbes that live in soil or water such as cyanobacteria (blue-green bacteria)

Non Biological fixation:

• When N2 combines with O2 under high heat and pressure (lightning).
• Humans also combine N2 with Hydrogen gas (H2 from CH4) to produce NH3 for fertilizer.
• Cars/combustion produces NO gas by combining N2 with O2 (Now amounts to 120 million tonnes per year)

1) Ammonification (decay): The conversion of organic nitrogen into inorganic nitrogen, recycling it into the atmosphere.

• organic-N from dead biomass is converted into ammonia NH3, and receives a H+ to become ammonium (NH4+)
• NH4+ can be utilized by some plant directly, though most need NO3- (nitrate)

2) Nitrification (aerobic): Bacteria convert NH4+ (ammonium) into Nitrite (NO₂^-) which then oxidizes into Nitrate (NO₃-)

 *It is important to note that nitirfication does not occur in acidic environments*

3) Denitrification (Anaerobic): Nitrate (NO₃-) converted to nitrous oxide (N₂O) or Nitrogen gas(N₂)...

• This process happens under anaerobic conditions, i.e. flooded fields...
• Denitrification balances nitrogen fixation, which normally keeps the nitrogen cylce balanced (flow through system)

Phosphorus is a critical nutrient as it is found in relatively small qauntities, mainly in rocks. Most phosphorus in terrestrial ecosystems is absorbed by plants from the soil as a phosphate ion (PO_4^3-)

• Most phosphorus in oceanic compartment comes from erosion of rocks or from runoff in an area that has been mined or fertilized with phosphate fertilizer (which acts as a long term sink) 

• Salmon are also important for moving phosphorus in marine biomes... they move it upstream when they migrate to spawn and die, thus returning phoshpate to upstream systems
• Phosphate is the most important limiting factor in fresh water aquatic ecosystems, meaning that primary producers will increase with an increase of phosphate and decrease with a decrease of Phosphate.  
• Humans mine guano + rocks to make fertilizer that is applied to crops and may then enter aquatic and terrestrial systems via watershed

Sulphur Cycle      

Important Nutrient for amino acids, proteins, and other bochemicals

• Abundant in minerals and rocks and has a significant presence in soil, water and the atmosphere
• Atmospheric Sulphur usually SO₂ (Sulphur dioxide) from volcanic eruption and also from coal fired plants and metal smelters, may be toxic to some plants in concentrations lower than 1ppm
• SO2 becomes sulphate (SO_4^2-) and may bond with Calcium (Ca2+) or hydrogen ions (H+, and may become acid rain)
• Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) erupts from volcanoes or from deep mining wells, it is formed under anaerobic conditions
• 41% of its introduction to the atmosphere is anthropogenic, causing acid rain, toxicity, and acid-mine drainage
• Most plants get their sulphu nutrients from dissolved sulphate in water/soil... there is a fine line between SO2 as a nutrient and poison!

• Geographicallly extensive ecosystem type,
• characterized by dominant life forms,
• terrestrial, freshwater, marine

Defined By:

• Climate
• Latitude
• Soil type
• Marine biomes:   – light, nutrients

*Generally the higher the temperature and the higher the precipitation, the higher the variability in life forms that characterize a biome*

1. Boreal Coniferous Forest: (AKA: taiga) cold winters, short but warm growing season and moist soil. Most extensive in the N.hemisphere, dominated by coniferous trees: pine, fir, birch and spruce. poor in species variety. Usually subject to periodic disturbance (fire, windstorm, insect infestation)

2. Temperate Deciduous Forest: occurs in relatively moist, temperate climates with short, moderately cold winters and warm summers. Dominated by angiosperm trees which are moslty deciduous, as an adaptation to drought and stresses of winter. ash, basswood, birch, cherry, chestnut, elm... lots of variety  that depends on soil moisture and fertility, soil and air temperature and othe renvironmental preferences.

3. Temperate Grassland: (Called Prarie in N.America): regions with 25-60cm/yr, which is adequate to prevent fire, but not enough to support forest. in N. America divided into three types

         A) tall grass B)mixed grass and C)short grass... the taller the vegetationm the more precipitation , however fires prevent tall grass from growing onto forest

Others:

4.Tundra

5.Temperate Rainforest

6.Chaparral

7.Desert

8.tropical grassland

9.semi-evergreen tropical forest

10.evergreen tropical Forest

1) Lentic: Lakes and ponds (still water), this biome is the most affected by humans!!!

2) Lotic: streams and rivers (flowing water) this biome is driven by water flow (volume, velocity, seasonal vartiation); turbidity is important because it interferes with amount of light being recieved; has a role in shaping landscapes (also erodign phosphorus + nitrogen from rocks

3) Wetlands (M s.B f): form in wet places on land, there are four types with differning productivity:

A) marsh: (most productive) with most plants growing from sediment.

B) Swamp: forested wetlands that may be flooded permanently or seasonally. Often dominated by trees like silver maple, white elm, or bald cypress

C) Bog: acidic, relatively unproductive and develop in cool, wet climates. Usually dominated by mosses

D) Fen: also develop in cool wet climates but are less acidic, hence more productive

 shallow water is generally more productive than deeper ones, however ones that receive less sunlight due to lack of tranparency are usually less productive regardless of nutrient supply.

Too many nutrients and very little oxygen.. in a lentic (freshwater) biome

*can be caused naturally or by human interference (i.e. fertilizer leached into water)

1) Open Ocean: Relatively unproductive in the pelagic (open water) where it is comparable to a terretrial desert. Physically determined by waves, rides, currents, salinity, temperature, light intensity and nutrient concentration.

** primary producer is phytoplankton, which are eaten by zooplankton (crustaceans) and fish,  top predators like tuna, squid, shark and whales are at the top of the food chain.

*** some regions have gyres, caused by the coriolis effect and collect floating biomass and sometimes garbage

2) Estuaries: complex, open to the sea but semi enclosed. Mix of salt and fresh water and are transitional between freshwater and ocean biomes.

* Tidal flow and river curerents affects the available nutrients and salinity

** Highly productive due to the fact that they retain most of the nutrients that flow into them.

** Estuaries provide critical habitat for juvenile stages of commercially important fish, shellfish and crustaceans..

1) Urban Industrial: resource extraction/processing, characterized by prominence of non-native species.

*Lots of disturbance due to transformation of land through extraction

2) Rural Techno:  Infrastructure, Characterized by introduced/non-native species and stress-tolerant species. Examples: transportaion corridors (highways, railways) plus small towns that support industrial activity

*Stress: noise+vibration, pesticide usem herbicide, vehicle exhaust

3) Agricultural: complex of agriculturalist habitats used to grow crops to be consumed by humans.

*May be monoculture or polyculture, and many are non-native

** most stress is associated with conversion of the land into agriculture/forestry

Smaller than biomes, but more specific/regional in scope.

Defined by key aspects of their physical environment such as dominant landforms and climate, as well as their natural ecosystems and prominent species.

Better at examining biodiversity. Hence, they examine how species aggregate into specifc geographic locations. 

*they incorporate more types of information: landforms, climate, soils, species, ecological communities.

1) Montane Cordillera (mountain)

2) Boreal Plains

3) Praries

4) Taiga Plains

Environmental Constraints to (re)production of an organism

May be constant as the effects of pollution while others are:

Disturbances: events which cause great damage during a short period of time.. may be natural (fire, windstorms) or anthropogenic (clear-cutting forests, ploughing fields)

Succession: extended period of ecological recovery after a disturbance

Ecology considers the structure and function of the web of life at the following levels

*However they are all related*:

1)Individual Organisms genetically discrete entities, however asexual organisms produce "idenitical individuals"

2) populations groupsd of individuals of the same species that are co-occuring in time and space and can potentially  interbreed with each other

3) Species  consists of one or more populations in which individuals can potentially interbreed, but are reproductively isolated from other groups

4) Communities consist of populations of various species that are co-existing at the same time and place and interacting ecologically

5) Landscape/Seascape spatial integrations of various communities over large areas.

6) Biosphere all of Earth's life and ecosystems and all the environments where they occur

Study of Individuals, Population, and species and differences between them.

• Considers the impact of the environment
• Considers causes of population change

Evolution is a response to a particular environment in a species, whereas

Convergence is a parallel development between species, through natural selection, in adaptation to their environments

Plant individuals can be categorized in relation to Disturbance and Stress :

1) Competitors (low stress, rare disturbance): Compete with other specied to acquire resources.

ex. conifer of far north

2) Ruderals (Low Stress, High Distrubance): Short lived with lots of seeds. intolerant of competition and stress.

ex. weeds

3) Stress Tolerator (High Stress, Low Disturbance): adapted to environments that are marginal in terms of climate, moisture or nutrient supply but are infrequently disturbed. common in arctic, desert

ex. cactus 

Another system for categorizing animal organisms:

K-selected: long lived organisms with relatively few progeny, but invest a lot into each to improve chance of survival.

*dominant in stable, mature, ecosystems where competition is main factor that determines community structure*

R-Selected: short-lived species that produce many small offspring, each of which has relatively little chance of survival but sheer numbers improve chance of reproductive success.

*Dominant in younger, recently disturbed habitats where resource is freely available and rapid pop growth is possible*

Autoecology examines how lives of individuals are influenced by their physical and biological environments...

Genotype: genetic information for the potential of an organism under perfect conditions

Due to Stress and disturbance this potential may not be reached... 

Phenotype: How genetic info is expressed in a specific environment

ΔP = BR-DR+IR-ER

Change in Pop= Birth Rate- Death Rate + Immigration Rate- Emmigration Rate

**demographic (population related) variables can also be used to measure human populations

the rate of population growth decreases to zero (BR+IR=DR+ER).. this is represented as

"S" shaped curve

*Similar to geno/phenotype*

Niche describes an species role within a community that can be specialized (the species can exist only in one area) or broad (can live across many niches) :

Fundamental:  The whole spectrum of niches possibel to sustain an organism/species

Realised: The actual niche an organism exists in

1) Existing Species/habitat quality

2) Spatial Variability: how a distance changes the quality of a landscape i.e. species interacting with abiotic factors(gradual or rapid)

3)Species Interactions: Symbiosis (parasitic, commensalism, mutualism); herbivory;predation;disease;competition (ruderal, competitor, stress tolerator)

4) Disturbance: stand replacing/macro disturbance: (pine beetle) or microdistrubance (algae bloom in a pond)

Intimate relationship between species may result in:

Parasitism: one benefits at the expense of the other (tick, parasitic wasp)

commencalism: one organism benefits, while the other is unharmed (barnacle on whale)

Mutualism: both organisms benefit (lichen=algea and fungus)

1) Environmental Conditions: soil, bedrock, variations in standing water, topography

2) Stages of Succession: Different stages due to succession

3) Land Use: Urbanization, agriculture, forestry, roads & other human influences

Uses Ecological ideas to solve environmental problems; usually one of three "R's" are applied  

1) Remmediation: remedy of problem in context i.e. slowing the pollution into a lake.

2) Recclamation: Bringing an environment back to its original biomass (not original condition) i.e. the solution most often applied in the oil sands

3) Restoration: Bringing the environment back to its original condition

Consists of all life and ecosystems on Earth. Some scientists suggest that there is a homeostatic feedback between ecosystems and the biosphere-level environment, ultimatley suggesting that all of the ecosystems form one superorganism.

*Mother Earth conceot is a recent manifestation of similar thinking*   

The progression of adaptive discoveries of increasingly sophisitcated tools and social systems over approx the last 10,000 years:  

1. tools, fire, dogs

2. agriculture (growing for immediate population)

3. food surpluses

4. domesticated animals

5. medicine and sanitation

6. resource extraction, communication, trasnportation

*Has led to a dramatic increase in Human population due to an increase in carrying capacity however the ecological impact of human populations has also increased dramatically*

The amount of time it takes a population to double in size

* went from 1500 years in 8000BCE to 58 in 2008 CE*

A transition from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates...

*during this time, populations typically grow at high rates.

*This transition takes place because of modern sanitation and medicine leads to substantial lowering of Death rates, but not to birth rate (which takes numerous generations to address)

*Once BR and DR become lower again, there is a chance at population stabilization

four stage model:

1) high BR+DR (

2) High BR lowering DR (Afganistan)

3) Lowering BR approaches low DR (Canada is here but getting close to 4)

4) BR <DR (Germany)

Maps the proportion of individuals in various age groups over time...

*stable pop's have similar numbers in each category (0-5, 5-10, etc)

*rapidly growing has a triangular structure with more younger than older individuals (usually over half under 15)

urbanization: development of cities and towns is a critical element of populatin distribution.

*Driven by population growth and the migration of people from rural areas to cities in search of work and services...

*about 3/4 live in cities in developed cities

*Represents a huge change on global pop distribution, as just a century ago 95% lived in rural areas in agrarian societies

*Megacities: having >10 million people (most are in developing countries)

urban peopel live close together and theor livlihoods  involve manufacturing, administration, financial institutions, commerce, educaiton and services. no cites are self-sufficient in food, energy or raw materials and few have potable water, thus they are involved with trade with surrounding countryside and other nations

Thomas Mathus (1798) argued that the human population was outgrowing the global food supply and that famine, war, disease were needed to support the population...

*Skeptics: Technology is increasing the carrying capacity by increasing ability to provide food

*It is still possible that the world's environment will degrade and reduce the carrying capacity regardless of tech advance

*Other still believe that novel, virulent diseases will raise global DR, or extensive warfare (nuclear proliferation)

*Others believe that