Term
|
Definition
-Free DNA
-Cell wall (peptidoglycan)
-No organelles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-DNA in nucleus
-Maybe cell wall
-organelles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Flagella allow bacteria to move towards attractants (like nutrients) and away from repellants (like antibiotics), a process known as |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
long, rigid tubular structure.
can be used to transfer DNA from one bacteria to another in a process called conjugation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| small bristle-like fibers found on the surface of many bacteria that are used for adhesion. Biofilm formation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
hardened structure composed of thousands of copies of a single protein linked tightly together.
They are produced in hostile environments to protect the cell and in some cases may be used for attachment. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
composed of polysaccharide or glycoprotein which provides protection to the cell and helps the cell adhere to its environment.
There are two types:
Slime layer – loose shield
Capsule – denser, thicker, and more tightly bound. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Shape, prevents rupture due to changes in osmotic pressure. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| macromolecule that makes cell walls strong. target for antibiotics |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Site of energy reactions. Nutrient processing. Synthesis.
Regulating transport into and out of the cell. |
|
|
Term
| Gram + vs Gram - stain color |
|
Definition
+ stain purple
- stain pink |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Mycobacterium
Nocardia
Special lipids in cell wall |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-outer membrane
-lipopolysaccharide (LPS) also known as endotoxin which causes fever and shock reactions in Gram negative infections.
-extra layer of strength against some dyes and disinfectants making them harder to kill. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
circular extrachromosomal DNA which can carry some protective traits including antibiotic resistance and toxin genes.
These contribute to the spread of antibiotic resistance as they can be spread |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| site of protein synthesis in prok & euk |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| dormant bodies produced by bacteria that are highly resistant to environmental conditions. |
|
|
Term
| Glycocalyx in eukaryotes is often called |
|
Definition
extracellular matrix and it has several functions:
Protection
Adherence
Reception of signals from other cells (many organisms can “talk” to each other). |
|
|
Term
| Protozoa and helminths do not have |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The cell walls of fungi are made of |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Cell membranes in eukaryotes contains |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| linear DNA found in the nucleus (euk) |
|
|
Term
| endoplasmic reticulum (ER) |
|
Definition
series of tunnels use in transport and storage.
shuttle materials from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| site in the cell in which proteins are modified (sugars and lipids are added), packaged, and sent to their final destinations. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
powerhouse of the cell. provide a constant supply of energy needed for cellular activity.
Protein synthesis, movement, reproduction, etc. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| powerhouse of algae and plant cells. It is here that photosynthesis takes place |
|
|
Term
| mitochondrial DNA comes from which parent? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
binding to the 30S subunit of the prokaryotic ribosome.
Eukaryotic ribosome doesn’t have a 30S subunit (it has a 40S and a 60S). Therefore, it does not affect protein synthesis in eukaryotes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fundamental unit of heredity responsible by itself (or with one or more additional genes) for a given protein in an organism. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cellular structure composed of neatly packaged DNA (containing many genes). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sum total of all of the organism’s genetic material (includes chromosomes, plasmids, etc.) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
replication
transcription
translation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Any organism that contains genes from another organism is called a |
|
|
Term
| Recombination has clinically importance relevance as it can result in the following: |
|
Definition
Resistance to drugs.
Resistance to metabolic poisons.
New nutritional and metabolic capabilities
Increased virulence
Adaptation to the environment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| plasmid, bacteriophage, and large pathogenicity islands |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| refers to any transfer of DNA that results in an organism acquiring new genes that did not come directly from parent organisms. Euk & Prok |
|
|
Term
| Genetic recombination occurs in bacteria by three methods: |
|
Definition
| Conjugation, Transduction, Transformation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
requires the attachment of two bacteria via the pilus bridge and transfer of DNA.
antibiotic resistance
donor cell does not lose the trait it transferred, it retains a copy and the recipient gets a copy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
entails the transfer of “free” DNA and requires no special vehicles.
called transfection in euk (genetic engineering) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another via a bacterial virus (phage)
Both bacteria (the donor and the recipient) must be of the same species because bacteriophage are highly specific in which type of bacteria that they attack.
Some pathogens have acquired virulence factors via transduction including Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Clostridium, and Streptococcus pyogenes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
have the ability to move from one part of the genome to another.
They can move from a site on a chromosome to another site on a chromosome or they can move to plasmids.
Moving to plasmids gives them the ability to move to different bacteria.
an transfer antibiotic resistance genes as shown in the figure at right. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a random change in the DNA arising from errors in replication that occur randomly. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
result from exposure to known mutagens.
Physical or chemical agents that interact with DNA in a disruptive manner.
Includes UV light, X rays, certain chemicals. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Small mutations involving addition, deletion, or substitution of single bases are called |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| When the bases are changed but the amino acid doesn’t change, this is called a |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Any change in the code that leads to placement of a different amino acid is called a |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| changes a normal codon to a stop codon (stop codons cause protein synthesis to stop). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| viruses that attack bacteria, harmless to humans, used in genetics and medicine to target specific bacteria |
|
|
Term
| Both bacteria and yeast can be genetically engineered to produce |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| three current vaccines that used genetic engineering in their production: |
|
Definition
hepatitis B vaccine is produced by cloning surface antigen into yeast.
The human papillomavirus vaccine is produced by recombinant DNA technology
rotavirus vaccine consists of reassortant rotaviruses |
|
|
Term
| adoptive cell transfer (ACT) |
|
Definition
| engineering patients’ own immune cells to recognize and attack their tumors. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Some of the factors that increase susceptibility to infections are: |
|
Definition
Old age
Extreme youth (infancy, premature)
Genetic defects in immunity.
Surgery and organ transplants
Co-morbidities (diabetes, cancer, etc)
Chemotherapy/immunosuppressive drugs
Physical/Mental stress
Pregnancy
Other infections |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| microbe that causes infection and disease |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the degree of pathogenicity and it is determined by the ability of an organism to establish itself in the host and cause damage. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Enter the host
Attach firmly to host tissues
Survive the host defenses
Cause disease
Vacate the host |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| To cause damage, microbes produce____.These include toxins, adhesins, extracellular enzymes, etc. |
|
|
Term
| Is it better to be more virulent or less virulent |
|
Definition
| Less- so that you can spread more |
|
|
Term
| If pathogens enter the wrong portal, they are |
|
Definition
not infectious
used for vaccine development |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| objective evidence of disease (fever, rash, runny nose). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| subjective evidence of disease (headache, malaise) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when disease can be identified by the presence of signs and symptoms it is called a |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Organisms that can hide from the immune response can cause
opportunists
Herpes simplex, chickenpox, hepatitis B, HIV, tuberculosis, malaria |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
serious
short infection
Diphtheria
Meningitis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
disease that is present before signs or symptoms are exhibited
bacterial endocarditis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| time from initial contact to the appearance of symptoms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Prodromal
Period of invasion
Convalescent period |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The earliest symptoms of disease usually include a vague feeling of discomfort which is known as the |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the microbe multiplies to high numbers during which symptoms are most severe. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the patient begins to respond to the infection and symptoms decline |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An infection indigenous to animals but naturally transmissible to humans is known as a |
|
|
Term
| A disease is communicable |
|
Definition
| when an infected host can transmit the infectious agent to another host and establish infection in that host. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A microbe that is highly communicable is considered |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Diseases that are communicable are often described using a mathematical number known as
Higher= more contagious |
|
|
Term
| The R naught for measles is approximately |
|
Definition
| 15, making it one of the most contagious diseases on the planet. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| % of the population must be vaccinated for herd immunity against measles to be successful. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a large percentage of the population has to be vaccinated |
|
|
Term
| community-associated/community-acquired. |
|
Definition
If the patient enters the hospital with apparent signs and symptoms the disease is considered
MRSA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
physical barriers
-skin
-mucous membranes
chemical barriers
-Lysozyme which destroys peptidoglycan.
-Sebaceous gland secretion which are antimicrobial.
-High lactic acid concentration in the skin.
-High pH in the vagina.
Etc. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| help the immune system distinguish self vs non-self |
|
|
Term
| pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) |
|
Definition
| Markers that many different pathogens have in common are called |
|
|
Term
| pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) |
|
Definition
The immune cells use a receptor known as____ to recognize PAMPs.
important for phagocytosis |
|
|
Term
| mononuclear phagocytic system (MPS) |
|
Definition
provides a passageway within and between tissues and organs
loaded with white blood cells (WBCs) known as macrophages (a type of phagocyte) which attack foreign invaders at multiple sites.
found in the thymus, lymph nodes, tonsils, spleen, and lymphoid tissues of the gut and respiratory tract. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
is crucial for returning extracellular fluid to the circulatory system
removing inflammatory response mediators (discussed later in this lecture)
and to perform immune system surveillance, recognition, and protection against foreign invaders. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| site of T cell maturation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| filter materials from lymph, site of immune reactions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| filters blood (removed old red blood cells (RBCs)and pathogens, site of immune reactions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
The production of blood cells is called______
The process begins in the bone marrow with pluripotent stem cells. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
phagocytosis,
inflammation
fever
antimicrobial proteins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
neutrophils
monocytes
macrophages |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
general killers of bacteria
elevated count is a good sign of infection. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| blood phagocytes that rapidly leave the circulation to mature into macrophages. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Large phagocytes that ingest and kill foreign cells. These cells process foreign substances and prepare them for reactions with B and T lymphocytes (antigen presentation) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| phagocytes migrate to the region of inflammation (chemotaxis), adhere to the pathogen (PAMP-PRR adhesion), engulf the pathogen, destroy the pathogen, and eliminate it. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chemical mediators produced by several cells that regulate, stimulate, suppress, and otherwise control the many aspects of cell development, inflammation, and immunity. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Injury/Immediate Reactions
Vascular Reactions
Edema and Pus Formation
Resolution/Scar Formation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Inhibits replication of some microbes
Reduces circulating iron which bacteria need to grow.
Increases metabolism and stimulates immune reactions
speeds up hematopoiesis, phagocytosis, and helps lymphocytes home in on the site of infection. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
cytokines that mediate various immune reactions including:
Inhibiting viral replication
Inhibiting expression of cancer genes
Acting as tumor suppressors
Stimulating immune cell functions including those of phagocytes and lymphocytes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
sometimes called acquired immunity as it results from previous immune activation such as prior infection.
triggered by antigens |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The immune response is so precise that lymphocytes (T and B cells) only respond to a small portion of the antigen molecule known as an |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| refers to the fact that antibodies against a specific antigen respond only to that antigen (mostly, cross-reactivity) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| refers to the ability of specialized cells to “remember” a pathogen and respond quickly if it is encountered again. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| MHC (major histocompatibility complex)/ HLA (Human Leukocyte Antigen) and CD (cluster of differentiation) |
|
Definition
Cell surface markers including _______
activate specific responses. |
|
|
Term
| MHC recognizes ___ and rejects____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| When B cells are activated, they give rise to |
|
Definition
| plasma cells, each of which makes the same antibody. |
|
|
Term
| When T cells are activated they give rise to |
|
Definition
Helper T cells
Regulatory T cells
Cytotoxic T cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| activate macrophages, assist B cells, and activate cytotoxic T cells. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| destroy infected host cells and other “foreign” cells. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| antigen-specific T cell receptors (TCR) and coreceptors called CD3 |
|
|
Term
| T helper cells also express |
|
Definition
| CD4 which binds to MHC class II molecules. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| express CD8 which binds to MHC class I molecules. |
|
|
Term
| B cell receptor genes code for |
|
Definition
| immunoglobulins which are the antigen receptors of B cells and, or when secreted, antibodies. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| are similar to B cell receptors in that they can respond to most antigens but they are never secreted (always membrane-bound as shown in 13.3). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| drug that binds to a B cell surface marker making the B cell a target for destruction by natural killer cells. The result is, all of the B cells expressing this marker are destroyed. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
potent stimuli for T cell activation and in some cases over-activation.
Toxins produced by S. aureus are |
|
|
Term
| cell-mediated immunity (CMI) |
|
Definition
The T cell response is often referred to by the term
T cells which when stimulated mobilize other T cells, B cells, and phagocytes.
T cells are activated by an antigen/MHC complex contacting their receptors.
Activated T cells divide into subsets of effector cells (T helper, T regulatory, etc). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| activate CMI, secrete cytokines, drive B cell proliferation, and promote inflammation. |
|
|
Term
| T regulatory cells (CD4). |
|
Definition
| control specific immune responses and prevent autoimmunity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| target and destroy infected cells, cancer cells, and cells from other animals and humans. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| respond like macrophages in that attack a wide variety of invaders (non-specific) but like T cells in that they produce memory cells (specific). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| regulate T cell response through cytokine production. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| circulate, looking for the same antigen. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cross-link cells causing clumping and increasing visibility to immune system. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| make microbes more visible to the immune system. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| most prevalent antibody in the blood, neutralizes toxins, opsonizes, and triggers complement pathway. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| secretory antibody present at mucous membranes, and in tears, saliva, and colostrum. Very active against viruses. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| activate B cell response. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| antibody of allergy, worm infections, mediates anaphylaxis and asthma. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the concentration of antibodies present in serum is called the |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the study of disease states associated with overreactivity or underreactivity of the immune response |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
allergy and anaphylaxis and atopy
usually ingested (food allergy)
IgE production-> mast cells-> cytokines
2nd exposure= allergic response |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
IgG and IgM mediated cell damage
cell lysis
Includes blood group incompatibilities, pernicious anemia and myasthenia gravis.
target-> RBC
Rh factor |
|
|
Term
| Hypersensitivity Type III |
|
Definition
immune complex
neutrophils cause tissue destruction
include SLE (systemic lupus erythematosus), rheumatoid arthritis, serum sickness, rheumatic fever, and arthus reaction. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
cell-mediated (delayed)
usually allergens that enter through skin
T-cell
infectious allergy, contact dermatitis, and graft rejection |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chronic local allergy such as hay fever or asthma. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cytokine-most abundant, fast acting, constricts smooth muscle layers of the bronchi, relaxes vascular muscle layers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cytokine-prolonged smooth muscle contraction of the bronchioles, increased mucus secretions, etc. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cytokine- gradual contraction of smooth muscle. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cytokine-vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, bronchoconstriction. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| may be inhaled which result in IgE that cross-reacts with proteins found in fruits and vegetables |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Penicillin
Sulfa drugs
Aspirin
Opiates
Contrast Dye used in X-rays |
|
|
Term
| RAST (radioallergosorbent test) |
|
Definition
| is the most widely used blood test for allergies. |
|
|
Term
| Drugs that treat allergic reactions |
|
Definition
Corticosteroids
Monoclonal antibodies
Antihistamines
Aspirin
Acetaminophen
Epinephrine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| is a decrease in RBCs that occurs because the stomach cannot absorb enough B12 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Please note that likelihood of the bone marrow registry having a match is widely different based on the |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The closer the match between the donor and recipient, the less likely the donor tissue (graft) will be rejected |
|
|
Term
| (autograph),(allograph),(isograph) |
|
Definition
| from self, another human, or from an identical twin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Rheumatic heart disease is triggered by |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a form of ongoing joint inflammation (chronic inflammatory arthritis) that primarily affects the spine. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| is caused by antibodies against thyroid-stimulation hormone receptor |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| caused by autoantibiodies binding to the receptors for acetylcholine effectively blocking muscle contraction. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
paralyzing neuromuscular disease characterized by lesions in the myelin sheath that surround neurons in the central nervous system.
T cells and antibodies sensitized to myelin sheath destroy neurons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the concentration of antibodies present in serum is called the |
|
|
Term
| Genetic deficiency in B cells (PRIMARY) |
|
Definition
usually results in abnormal immunoglobulin expression:
Agammaglobulinemia
Hypogammaglobulinemia
recurrent bacterial infections |
|
|
Term
| Defects in T cell immunity |
|
Definition
can result in severe opportunistic infections and cancer.(PRIMARY)
DiGeorge Syndrome
Absence of the thymus
prone to infection |
|
|
Term
| Severe combined immunodeficiencies (SCIDs) |
|
Definition
| are the most serious and potentially lethal forms of immunodeficiency disease. |
|
|
Term
| Second immune deficiencies are acquired and the can be caused by the following: |
|
Definition
Infections (AIDS)
Cancer
Nutritional deficiencies
Stress
Pregnancy
Aging
Irradiation
Severe burns
Steroids
Immunosuppressive drugs
Removal of spleen |
|
|
Term
| The goal of antimicrobials |
|
Definition
| is to destroy an infectious agent without harming the host |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| There are three important factors to consider before starting antimicrobial therapy: |
|
Definition
The nature of the microorganism causing the disease
The degree of the microorganism’s susceptibility to various drugs
The overall medical condition of the patient. |
|
|
Term
| Drug Susceptibility Tests |
|
Definition
| Kirby-Bauer shown at top right, the E-test at bottom right, and the automated system which uses microboth dilution. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Inhibit cell wall synthesis
Inhibit nucleic acid structure and function
Inhibit protein synthesis
Interference with cytoplasmic membrane structure or function
Inhibition of folic acid synthesis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
like eukaryotes, hard to be selective
macrolide polyenes
azoles
echinocandins
nucleotide cytosine analog |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Malaria
quinine derivatives
Metronidazole (flagyl) |
|
|
Term
| Helminth infections treatment |
|
Definition
| mebendazole, albendazole, praziquantel, and ivermectin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Barring penetration of the virus into the host cell.
Blocking the transcription and translation of viral molecules.
Preventing the maturation of viral particles. |
|
|
Term
| minimum inhibitory concentration or MIC. |
|
Definition
| The smallest concentration of drug that visibly inhibits growth is called the |
|
|
Term
| Microbes become resistant to drugs in two ways |
|
Definition
Spontaneous mutations in critical chromosomal genes.
Acquisition of entire new genes or sets of genes via horizontal transfer from another species. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Inactivation of drug by new enzymes
Decreasing uptake of the drug
Efflux pumps immediately pump drug out of cell.
Drug binding sites are decreased
Metabolic pathways are altered |
|
|
Term
| ___ people in the US become infected with bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics and ___ of them die annually. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Toxicity Reactions to antimicrobials typically fall into the following categories: |
|
Definition
Directly damage tissues
Allergic reactions
Disruption in the balance of normal microbiota. |
|
|
Term
| E. coli O157:H7 with antibiotics increases the likelihood of |
|
Definition
| HUS (hemolytic uremic syndrome) by 17 fold! |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Broad-spectrum antibiotics can kill normal biota, allowing other microbes that were present in low numbers to begin to overgrow and cause disease. This process is known as
Can also be used to describe secondary infections |
|
|
