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Microbiology Final Review
Review!
123
Science
Undergraduate 1
03/16/2009

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Term
By the conversion of sugar to ethanol and CO2 by various species of the fungal yeast Saccharomyces.
Definition
How are alcoholic beverages produced?
Term
Innate immunity
Definition
Nonspecific immunity acting against all invading pathogens
Term
Repressor
Definition
Protein that binds to DNA and prevents RNA polymerase from transcribing the gene
Term
Benign
Definition
Non invasive tumor
Term
Epstein-Barr Virus
Definition
Responsible for monnucleosis and Burkitt's lymphoma
Term
Symbiosis
Definition
2 or more organisms living in close association
Term
Antigen
Definition
Any foreign protein or polysaccharide that gets into the body
Term
Normal flora
Definition
Microbes living on and in us which normally do not harm us
Term
Inflammation
Definition
Due to histamine that causes blood vessel dilation
Term
Active immunity
Definition
Stimulation of B cells by being exposed to an antigen
Term
Passive immunity
Definition
Antibodies are transferred from 1 individual to another
Term
Antibody
Definition
Protein produced by the body in response to a substance; specifically recognizes certain parts of the foreign particles known as antigens
Term
1) IgG. 2) IgM. 3) IgA. 4) IgD. 5) IgE. All have 2 identical light polypeptide chains connected by disulfide bonds to 2 identical heavy polypeptide chains
Definition
What are the 5 different classes of antibodies? What is the basic structure of all of these antibodies?
Term
Specific/acquired immune system
Definition
Consists of the type of immunity we acquire during our lifetime, specifically against certain microbes
Term
Smallpox
Definition
Caused by virus called variola, which is transmitted from infected skin to the respiratory tract. It then enters the circulatory and lymphatic systems and localizes in the skin where it multiplies, forming pus-filled blisters, or "pox". It is highly contagious; if you survive it, you'll never get it again
Term
Edward Jenner (British physician) that noticed that women who had cowpox (mild pox-like disease) before never got smallpox; hypothesized that there was enough of a similarity b/t the smallpox and cowpox diseases so that if you were infected w/ 1 of them, it would provide lasting immunity against the other. Tested this by injecting 8 yr old boy with pus from cowpox, and after a few weeks, pus from smallpox. Boy didn't get smallpox! (This became known as vaccination)
Definition
Vaccination against smallpox
Term
Very specific and custom made for each antigen. Not made against lipids or DNA. Found in the serum portion of blood. Are Y-shaped. Antibodies contain a variable amino acid sequence in the top portion of the antibody that actually interacts with the antigen. Also contains a constant region in the bottom that's generally conserved within a species. Also, sometimes antibodies are referred to as immunoglobulins (Ig) because they were found in the globular protein portion of serum and were associated with immunity
Definition
Characteristics of antibodies
Term
IgG antibody
Definition
type of antibody: largest group (quantity) produced by the body
Term
IgM antibody
Definition
type of antibody: the first antibody to be produced upon infection
Term
IgA antibody
Definition
type of antibody: commonly found in bodily secretions (tears, sweat, mother's milk)
Term
IgD antibody
Definition
type of antibody: often involved in parasitic infections
Term
IgE antibody
Definition
type of antibody: involved in allergies
Term
They are much smaller than the bacteria; instead, they just act as signals to other components of the immune system so that it can destroy the bacterium
Definition
Why are antibodies not effective against bacteria?
Term
1.) Antibodies can "tag" the invading cell for destruction by phagocytosis; speeds up this identification process by protruding from the bacterial cell.
2.) Complement proteins found in the serum will also recognize antibody adsorbed to the surface of a bacterial cell, which will then bind to the cell wall around the region of the antibody and begin a cascade of events to form a complex (often referred to as a Membrane Attack Complex [MAC]). This complex will punch a hole in the bacterial cell wall, leading to cell lysis
Definition
2 ways that antibodies can destroy bacterium
Term
Plasma B Cells
Definition
These cells make and release antibody proteins in the blood. If any other pathogens are present in the blood, the antibody can now bind to them and target them for destruction
Term
Memory B Cells
Definition
These cells do not release antibody into circulation, they instead have them on their surfaces. They serve as "reminders" of what the initial antigen looked like
Term
Immature B-lymphocytes (B-cells)
Definition
Cells differentiated in the bone marrow; lymphocytes that produce immunoglobulin. They have variable regions of their antibody sticking out on the surface of the cell membranes
Term
Cell-mediated immune response
Definition
Immune responses mediated by T lymphocytes
Term
T-lymphocytes mature in the thymus. 1) T-helper cells (Th)--> these cells are critical for initiation of the immune response by stimulating antibody production.
2.) T-killer (Tk)--> these cells can kill a foreign cell without any cooperation from the rest of the body; can also recognize/kill infected or cancerous cells
Definition
2 kinds of T-cells
Term
Histocompatibility proteins
Definition
Cell surface molecules involved in the immunological rejection of transplanted tissues and organs and in recognition b/t cells during the immune response
Term
Auto immune disease
Definition
When our immune system makes antibodies against our own proteins; can be devastating
Term
Natural active immunity
Definition
type of immunity: get sick; this will establish memory
Term
Active artificial immunity
Definition
type of immunity: use vaccines that "fool" the immune system into thinking that you're sick. Memory cells will still be produced. (Use vaccines made of killed or mutated bacteria/virus to elicit immune response)
Term
1.) DPT- Diphtheria, Pertusis (whooping cough), and Tetanus. 2) MMR- Measles, Mumps, Rubella. 3.) Polio. 4.) Hepatitis B. 5.) Chickenpox
Definition
Examples of vaccines commonly given to children
Term
1.) Natural active immunity. 2.) Active artificial immunity. 3.) Natural passive immunity. 4.) Artificial passive immunity.
Definition
4 ways to obtain immunity
Term
Natural passive immunity
Definition
type of immunity: When the fetus is in the womb, it gets immunity from mom through antibodies (IgG) that are able to pass through the placenta. Can also receive IgA antibodies through breast feeding. This immunity is short-lived and no memory is established.
Term
Artificial passive immunity
Definition
type of immunity: Injection of antibodies isolated from another source
Term
Normal flora
Definition
The group of microorganisms that colonizes the body surfaces but doesn't usually cause disease
Term
Sebum
Definition
Contains lipid, protein, and salt to lubricate our hair; holds nutrients
Term
Sweat
Definition
Contains water and salt; also holds nutrients
Term
Opportunistic infections
Definition
An infection caused by pathogens that usually don't cause disease in a healthy immune system. Occurs when bacteria enter areas of the body where they're normally not found. Ex.= acne
Term
Propionobacterium acnes
Definition
Normally present in and around hair follicles. Stress and hormonal changes can lead to pimple formation by causing the sebaceous glands to be hyperactive; when sebum is overproduced by these glands, a plug can form around the hair follicle (called a whitehead). This plug traps the bacteria and their waste products in the follicle.
Term
Staphylococcus epidermis
Definition
Normally present on everyone's skin. "Good twin".
Term
Staphylococcus aureus
Definition
Okay under most conditions, yet can cause problems when it gets into areas where it doesn't belong. Can create boils through the worsening of pimples due to production of enzymes that destroy connective tissue
Term
Toxic Shock Syndrome
Definition
Caused by stapholococcus aereus. Lowers blood pressure, which doesn't allow blood to get to the brain; can lead to coma or death. Ex= many menstruating women using tampon brand (Rely) were being treated for this in hospitals--> super absorbent tampon that allowed staphylococcus aereus to thrive.
Term
Cold sores
Definition
Occur when the Herpes Simplex Type I virus infects the membranes of the skin and causes blisters. This virus becomes latent in peripheral nerve cells
Term
Warts
Definition
Occur upon infection with the human papilloma virus (HPV)
Term
Smallpox
Definition
Caused by variola virus
Term
Chickenpox
Definition
Childhood disease caused by varicella virus, which is a herpes type virus. Virus is inhaled/reproduces in the skin, where it forms the pox characteristic of the disease
Term
Shingles
Definition
When chickenpox virus remains latent in children then later in life, becomes reactivated and manifests symptoms different from those experienced during chickenpox infection. The virus is now coming out of nerve cells instead of infecting epithelial cells. Causes a red rash around the torso region and sometimes portions of the face
Term
Ringworm
Definition
This fungal skin infection was mistaken to be caused by a worm b/c it spreads out on the skin in a radial fashion
Term
Athlete's foot
Definition
Fungal skin infection usually associated with locker rooms; very contagious. If anyone with athlete's foot walks across carpet, they deposit spores into carpet which can be picked up by anyone walking by with bare feet. Most fungal infections can be treated with topical cream.
Term
Mouth & throat
Definition
Upper respiratory system includes:
Term
Trachea & lungs
Definition
Lower respiratory system includes:
Term
Cells that line the trachea produce mucus; these cells have cilia that beat in an upward motion to move the mucus upward, where it's forced up to the throat to be swallowed. The body increases mucus production whenever there's a respiratory infection so it can flush out the infectious agents.
Definition
How is the lower respiratory system kept free of microbes?
Term
Colds
Definition
Most common infections in humans
Term
There are over 159 types of Rhinovirus, which is the most common cause for colds, plus over 50 adenoviruses that also cause colds. We establish memory and become immune to whatever particular cold virus once infected, but there are over 200 viruses to deal with!
Definition
Why do we get colds over and over again?
Term
Via direct contact. When an infected person touches their nose, getting mucus on their hand, they then spread the virus to others when they shake hands. If this person rubs their nose at some point, they infect themselves with the virus. Cold virus is generally transmitted through this route: nose--> hand--> hand--> nose. So basically, wash hands!
Definition
How are colds transmitted?
Term
Epidemiology
Definition
The study of how diseases spread
Term
Epidemiologists
Definition
These people study the spread of infections throughout the population
Term
Endemic
Definition
always present, but in low numbers (like colds)
Term
Epidemic
Definition
Large, localized outbreak (i.e., flu in LA)
Term
Pandemic
Definition
A large outbreak that spreads worldwide
Term
Influenza
Definition
The most common infection of the lower respiratory tract; this infection starts in the URT but then spreads to LRT. Symptoms=sneezing, coughing, fever, longer duration. Doesn't kill directly; damages lungs and secondary infections occur (such as pneumonia)
Term
Heart attack. Cancer. Stroke. All accidents. Flu (resulting in pneumonia). Diabetes. Cirrhosis of the liver. Suicide. Hardening of the arteries. Homicide.
Definition
Top 10 Killers in the U.S. today
Term
Flu virus
Definition
RNA virus composed of 8 pieces of RNA. Has a very high mutation rate, so new strains are constantly emerging. Some of these mutations cause changes in the surface antigens so they aren't recognized by antibodies.
Term
CDC monitors different flu strains around the world in the spring and chooses the 3 that would most likely cause problems in the U.S. the following winter. Make a combination vaccine against these strains by growing the viruses in chicken eggs. Vaccine is ready in the fall. Flu=spread by coughing/sneezing.
Definition
How flu shots are made
Term
Tuberculosis
Definition
The bacteria mycobacterium tuberculosis survive inside phagocytes in the lungs, escaping the immune system. Over time, the lung tissue is damaged and the infected individual will have a serious cough/may cough up blood. Holes appear in lungs so they look like cheese (ewww).
Term
mouth, esophagus, stomach
Definition
Upper gastrointestinal tract includes:
Term
small and large intestine
Definition
Lower gastrointestinal tract includes:
Term
mouth
Definition
This has the same normal flora as the URT but has some unique bacteria associated with the teeth and gums
Term
stomach
Definition
Has no normal flora because of the high acidity and digestive enzymes. Exception=helicobacter pylori, which burrows into the lining
Term
Small intestine
Definition
Has the most simple molecules cross into blood stream here. Normal flora at the end (from the large intestine)
Term
Large intestine
Definition
Water absorption. Final result: fecal waste. This has the highest concentration of normal flora in the body.
Term
Opportunistic members of the normal flora
Definition
What are many of the diseases of the digestive tract caused by?
Term
S. mutans can cause problems when it's exposed to sucrose (table sugar). Sucrose=fructose+glucose. S. mutans utilizes these 2 sugars to cause cavities. Cause plaque; when the bottom of the plaque run out of oxygen, they switch over from aerobic respiration to the fermentation of fructose, producing lactic acid. Tooth enamel can be damaged by the acid, causing the tooth to dissolve.
Definition
What causes cavities?
Term
Gastroenteritis
Definition
Can be caused by a rapid change in diet (spicy foods, alcohol). Most common cause of infection of this is e. coli. Route=fecal/oral. Travelers' disease= mild gastroenteritis. (Basically, having fecal matter/sewage in water supply, especially in developing countries)
Term
Prion disease
Definition
Caused by genetic inheritance (rare), genetic mutation (rare), or prions in the diet. Not necessarily an infectious disease; have no nucleic acids, just protein
Term
Amebic dysentery
Definition
Caused by a protozoan. Foamy, watery stool, possibly with blood
Term
Cholera
Definition
Caused by vibrio cholerae; severe form of dysentery
Term
Salmonella
Definition
Common culprits of this disease: chicken and turkey. Symptoms are nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and cramping.
Term
Hepatitis
Definition
general term used to describe any infection or inflammation of the liver; 1 of the major symptoms is jaundice, which indicates liver malfunction.
Term
Cirrhosis
Definition
long term irritation of liver; also caused by alcohol abuse, impairs liver function
Term
Hepatitis A
Definition
transmitted by the fecal/oral route from the food or water supply. Rare in US. there's a vaccine.
Term
Hepatitis B
Definition
transmitted by blood and sex. High correlation with liver cancer later on. There is a vaccine.
Term
Hepatitis C
Definition
transmitted by blood. no vaccine yet.
Term
blood and lymph systems
Definition
the circulatory system includes:
Term
septicemia
Definition
an infection of the blood system
Term
mononucleosis
Definition
common infection of the lymphatic system, caused by Epstein Barr Virus (EBV). "mono". symptoms= lethargy, mild fever, swollen nodes
Term
Epstein Barr Virus
Definition
This virus is a herpes type virus b/c it possesses DNA and can become latent.
Term
15-25 years old and from upper socioeconomic groups. This is b/c they tend to be isolated as children/less likely to come into close contact w/ other kids that may be infected. If infected with EBV as a child, there are mild symptoms of mono that often go unnoticed; symptoms are much more noticeable once they become older.
Definition
What group of people are most affected by mononucleosis? why?
Term
brain and spinal cord
Definition
central nervous system includes:
Term
rest of the nerves in the body/everything besides brain and spinal cord
Definition
peripheral nervous system includes:
Term
herpes/herpes-type infections
Definition
most common infections of the peripheral nervous system
Term
encephalitis
Definition
infections of the brain
Term
meningitis
Definition
infections of the meningal membranes
Term
polio
Definition
an example of a viral infection that can damage the CNS. it's spread through the fecal/oral route and can lead to paralysis. CNS infection.
Term
rabies
Definition
viral infections that targets the CNS; spread by saliva from the bite of an infected animal
Term
Neisseria meningitidis
Definition
an example of a bacterial infection that can spread to the CNS; this bacteria (which doesn't really affect healthy people) spreads to the meningal membranes and causes an inflammation response. Leads to swelling/pressure that damages brain and causes death.
Term
spinal tap. a sample of cerebral spinal fluid is collected.
Definition
ways to test for a CNS infection
Term
Syphilis
Definition
STD that's caused by spirochete shaped bacteria called Treponema palldium. Spirochetes have a corkscrew shape and are able to burrow into soft tissues; manifests itself differently depending on what stage it's in
Term
primary stage of syphilis
Definition
happens a few days after infection. it is an open sore, or chancre, at the initial site of contact/entry. is highly infectious. the chancre will clear up and go away. if the infection isn't treated, it can enter the secondary stage.
Term
primary stage of syphilis
Definition
happens a few days after infection. it is an open sore, or chancre, at the initial site of contact/entry. is highly infectious. the chancre will clear up and go away. if the infection isn't treated, it can enter the secondary stage.
Term
secondary stage of syphilis
Definition
happens a few weeks to a few months after first stage. . characterized by a rash all over the skin; still highly infectious
Term
tertiary stage of syphilis
Definition
usually happens decades after secondary stage. symptoms=skin lesions, called gumma's. there is often CNS damage and it can cause death
Term
congenital syphilis
Definition
syphilis that is transmitted from mother to fetus and can result in severe birth defects in the fetus.
Term
gonorrhea
Definition
disease caused by coccus shaped bacterium w/ protein filaments called pili extending off the surface that allow the bacteria to stick to mucus membranes. in females, symptoms=scarring may result in the fallopian tubes b/c eggs are blocked. in males, an inflammation will occur in the urethra which causes severe pain during urination.
Term
(NGU) non-gonococcal urethritis
Definition
these infections have symptoms that are similar to gonorrhea, however they are caused by other infectious agents
Term
trichomonas
Definition
example of an NGU; is a protozoan (eukaryotic), the method of treatment differs significantly
Term
chlamydia
Definition
example of an NGU; intracellular bacterium and must also be treated differently than Neisseria
Term
HIV virus
Definition
enveloped retrovirus; envelope contains a surface protein (GP 120)
Term
preserves milk
Definition
lactobacillus acidophilus
Term
lactobacillus bulgaricus
Definition
preserves yogurt
Term
streptococcus thermophilus
Definition
preserves yogurt
Term
propionibacterium
Definition
preserves swiss cheese
Term
penicillum roqueforti
Definition
preserves roquefort cheese
Term
saccharomyces cerevisiae
Definition
preserves bread, beer, homemade soft drinks
Term
saccharomyces carlsbergensis
Definition
preserves beer
Term
saccharomyces ellipsoideus
Definition
preserves wine
Term
saccharomyces sake
Definition
preserves sake
Term
cheese
Definition
curdling milk in a very thorough manner with salt, lactic acid bacteria, and the enzyme rennin produces:
Term
rennin
Definition
naturally found in the stomach lining of calves; breaks down milk so young animal can digest it. when used to make cheese, this causes a strong curdling reaction
Term
flour (contains gluten protein - sticky when wet), water, sugar, yeast. (CO2 causes the gluten to rise; alcohol evaporates in the oven)
Definition
ingredients of bread
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