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sum of all chemical processes carried out by living organisms
-includes anabolism & catabolism |
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reaction that require energy to synthesize complex molecules into simpler ones
Ex. growth, reproduction, and repair of cells |
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reactions that release energy by breaking complex molecules into simpler ones that can then be reused as building blocks
Ex. breakdown of energy for movement, transport, etc. |
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| organisms which make their own food by reducing CO2 |
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| organisms that use ready-made organic molecules for food |
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| chain of chemical reactions in which the product of one reaction serves as the substrate for the next |
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| special category of proteins found in all living organisms, catalyst that controls the rate of chemical reactions in cells |
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| substances that remain unchanged while they speed up reactions to as much as a million times the uncatalyzed rate |
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| What is another way to speed up a reaction without using an enzyme catalyst, and what is the problem with this method? |
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| an increase of temperature is the only other way to speed up the reaction rate, but most cells would die when exposed to such a rise in temperature |
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| energy needed to start a reaction |
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| How do enzymes speed up reaction rates? |
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| they lower the activation energy so reactions can occur quicker while still being at mild temperatures |
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| an area of an enzyme's surface on which a substrate binds |
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| What accounts for an enzyme's specificity? |
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| enzymes that act within the cell that produced them |
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| enzymes that are synthesized in a cell but cross the cell membrane to act in the periplasmic space or in the cell's immediate environment |
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| protein portion of an enzyme, sometimes needs to combine with nonprotein cofactor or coenzyme to form active holoenzme |
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| nonprotein organic molecule bound or loosely associated with an enzyme |
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| What are many coenzymes synthesized from? |
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| inorganic nonprotein molecule (usually an ion) which can improve the fit of an enzyme with its substrate |
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nonsubstrate molecule that is similar in structure to the substrate which competes with the substrate for the active site of an enzyme, which will inhibit the reaction
-substrate concentration can decrease inhibition |
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| Sulfa drugs are an example of what? |
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Definition
| competitive inhibition-they compete with PABA for enzymes' active sites, inhibiting production of folic acid for bacterial growth |
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| noncompetitive inhibitors |
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substances which attach to enzyme's allosteric site rather than active site, distorting tertiary structure and altering shape of enzyme (substrate can no longer bind)
-substrate concentration does not affect inhibition |
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reversible noncompetitive inhibition which regulates the rate of metabolic pathways
Ex. end product of pathway accumulates-->product binds and inactivates enzyme that catalyzes first reaction in pathway |
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| Feedback inhibition is a type of what? |
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| noncompetitive inhibition |
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| How is feedback inhibition different from other types of noncompetitive inhibitions? |
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| What are 3 factors that affect rate of enzyme reactions? |
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| temperature, pH, and concentrations (of substrate, product & enzyme) |
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| What is the optimal temp of most human body enzymes? |
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| What are some optimal pHs in the human body? |
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in stomach-2 to 4
in blood-approx. 7 |
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| rate of change is equal in both directions, no net work is done |
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| True or False. Both aerobes and anaerobes use the metabolic pathway of glycolysis. |
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| True-it can be done either with or without oxygen |
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| What are 4 important events in glycolysis? |
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1. substrate-level phosphorylation
2. breaking of glucose into 2 three-carbon molecules
3. transfer of 2 electrons to coenzyme NAD
4. capture of energy in ATP |
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| addition of a phosphate group to a molecule, often from ATP, which increases the molecule's energy |
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| How much net ATP is produced from glycolysis? |
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| anabolic metabolism of the pyruvic acid that is produced in glycolysis |
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| What are the 2 main pathways of fermentation? |
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| homolactic acid fermentation & alcoholic fermentation |
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| What is the simplest pathway for pyruvic acid metabolism? |
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| homolactic acid fermentation |
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| homolactic acid fermentation |
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| pathway in which pyruvic acid is directly converted to lactic acid using electrons from reduced NAD (NADH) |
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| fermentation in which pyruvic acid is reduced to ethyl alcohol by electrons from reduced NAD (NADH) |
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| organisms that do not use oxygen, include some that are killed by oxygen |
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| organisms that do use oxygen, include some that must have oxygen |
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| use oxygen if it is available but can function without it |
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| What must pyruvic acid be converted to before it can enter the Krebs cycle? |
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Definition
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| What are the main 3 events in the Krebs cycle? |
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Definition
1. oxidation of carbon
2. transfer of electrons to coenzymes
3. substrate level energy capture |
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| How much ATP is produced from the formation of acetyl-CoA? |
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| What are the starting materials and products of glycolysis? |
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starting material: glucose
end product: 2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 pyruvate |
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| What are the starting materials and end products of the formation of acetyl-CoA? |
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starting material: pyruvate
end product: NADH & acetyl-CoA |
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| What are the starting materials and end products of the Kreb cycle? |
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starting material: acetyl CoA
end product: 2 ATP, 4 CO2, 6 NADH, 2FADH2 |
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| the process in which pairs of electrons are transferred between cytochromes and other compounds |
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| series of compounds that pass electrons to oxygen (final electron acceptor) |
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| oxidative phosphorylation |
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| process in which the energy of electrons is captured in high-energy bonds as phosphate groups combine with ADP to form ATP |
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| an electron carrier in oxidative phosphorylation |
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| an electron carrier functioning in the electron transport chain; have an iron-containing ring called heme |
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| nonprotein, lipid soluble electron carriers in the ETC |
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| process of energy capture in which a proton gradient is created by means of electron transport and then used to drive the synthesis of ATP |
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| What are the final electron acceptors of anaerobic respiration? |
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| nitrate, sulfate, nitrite (inorganic molecules) |
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| What are the final electron acceptors of fermentation? |
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| pyruvic acid (organic molecules) |
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| How many ATP molecules are generated in oxidative phosphorylation (ETC & chemiosmosis)? |
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| How many molecules of ATP are produced by anaerobic respiration (glycolysis & fermentation)? |
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| Where does the Krebs cycle take place in prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes? |
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prokaryotes-in cytoplasm
eukaryotes-mitochondrial matrix |
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| Where does the ETC take place in prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes? |
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Definition
prokaryotes-cell membrane
eukaryotes-in inner mitochondrial membranes |
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| What are the starting materials and end products of the ETC? |
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Definition
starting material: 6O2
end product: 6H2O, 34 ATP |
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| What are fats hydrolyzed to? |
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Definition
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| What is glycerol metabolized by? What are fatty acids metabolized by? |
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| glycerol by glycolysis, fatty acids by beta oxidation (to form acetyl CoA which is then oxidized via Kreb cycle for more energy) |
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| How are proteins metabolized? |
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| first broken down by proteolytic enzymes, then amino acids are deamination (amino groups removed), then deaminated molecules enter either glycolysis, fermentation, or Kreb's cycle |
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| capture of energy from light and use of this energy to manufacture carbohydrates from carbon dioxide |
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| light-dependent reactions |
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Definition
| part of photosynthesis in which light energy is used to excite electrons from chlorophyll, which are then used to generate ATP and NADPH |
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| carbon fixation reactions |
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| part of photosynthesis in which carbon dioxide gas is reduced by electrons from reduced NADP (NADPH) to form various carbohydrate molecules, chiefly glucose |
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| pathway in which excited electrons from chlorophyll are used to generate ATP without the splitting of water or reduction of NADPH, therefore the electrons are "cycled" and excited over and over |
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| photosynthetic pathway in which excited electrons from chlorophyll are used to generate ATP and reduce NADPH with the splitting of water molecules (photolysis) |
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| What are the products of the light-dependent reactions which go on to participate in the carbon fixation reactions? |
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| ATP, reduced NADP (NADPH), and atmospheric CO2 |
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| Are plants photoautotrophs or photoheterotrophs? |
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Definition
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| Examples of photoautotrophs. |
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| photosynthetic bacteria (green sulfur, purple sulfur, cyanobacteria) and algae |
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| Examples of chemoautotrophs. |
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| iron, sulfur, hydrogen, and nitrifying bacteria & some Archaeobacteria |
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| Examples of photoheterotrophs. |
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| purple nonsulfur bacteria, green nonsulfur bacteria |
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| Examples of chemoheterotrophs |
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| most bacteria, all protozoans, all fungi, all animals |
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| ability of an organism to emit light |
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| How does bioluminescence benefit large organisms that live deep in the sea? |
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| bioluminescent microbes have a symbiotic relationship with these organisms, providing them with a light source to attract prey |
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