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| the genetic information's (in living organism) location |
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| an organized piece of DNA, arge structures found within cells that carry genetic instructions |
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| chromosomes in eucaryote (human) cells physical feature |
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| chromosomes in procaryote (bacteria) cells physical feature |
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physical appearance of a characteristic, (blonde hair, blue eyes, sickle cell)
One particular bacterium may not be killed by Penicillin so it has an antibiotic resistant ___________ |
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| the specific genetic makeup of the organism |
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| When a cell divides it makes copies of all of the chromosomes so the new cell will have a full set of instructions. |
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| turn DNA information into RNA segments |
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| the cells makes sense of the RNA sequence to _______ the information into directions for assembly of amino acids into a functional protein |
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| a long chain of nucleic acids |
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| ladder-like shape that is twisted into a spiral shape made with sugar phosphate (covalent bond)and C&G and A&T (hydrogen bond) held together by a base bond |
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| separation of the two strands by the helicase, each strand used as a template to make a new strand |
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| An enzyme that unwinds the strands without making a big knot of the double helix. |
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| a small premade piece of nucleic acid, puts the codon where they need to be |
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| The enzyme that inserts the primer |
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| This inserts a T opposite of every A and inserts a C opposite every G and so on |
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| This seals up the ends of the new strands into a complete molecule |
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| bacteria chorosomes copy pattern |
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| clockwise and counter clockwise |
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| the cell makes a copy of the gene required and it makes the new strand of genetic information out of mRNA not DNA |
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| A&U and C&G, There are no T's |
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| The enzyme used when making RNA to attach the respective nucleotide |
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| the last step in DNA Replication, the mRNA is decoded into instructions for building a protein (a specific sequence of amino acids) |
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| a specific sequence of amino acids |
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| The letter sequence (A,U,C,G) in the mRNA read in groups of 3 that represents a specific amino acid with that gives 64 possible combinations |
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| Number of common amino acids |
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| a multistep process that involves Ribosomes, mRNA and tRNA. |
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| the factories of protein production, with two halves that fit together (like an Easter egg) and sandwich a mRNA in between, and a number of openings or holes that tRNA molecules can squeeze into |
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| The most important openings in the ribosome |
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| an RNA molecule that has different amino acids attached on one end and the other end has a sequence of 3 nucleotides(anticodon) that base pair with the codon |
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| the assembly of the two ribosome halves that cover the mRNA, the ribosome sets up on the first AUG sequence it finds, then two appropriate tRNA molecules settle into both the P site (first) and the A site (second), and the codon must match the anti-codon of the proper tRNA. |
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| Once two tRNA's are settled in, the two amino acids are in the proper orientation to form a peptide bond. The first amino acid releases from it's tRNA (in the P site). The empty tRNA is released and floats away to be reused |
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| After the first tRNA is released (from the P site) the ribosome complex moves one codon to the right. This exposes the next codon in the open A site and a new tRNA can settle in. This ALSO allows amino acid 2 (from the original A site) to peptide bond with amino acid 3(in the new A site). Amino acid 2 releases (already peptide bonded to amino acid 1) and it's tRNA floats away. The process continues until a stop codon is reached. |
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| Finally, once a stop codon is reached, the process will stop. Since there is no tRNA for the stop codon, the ribosome stalls. Eventually the whole complex comes apart and can be used again to make another protein. |
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| Errors in the replication of DNA or An error in the production of mRNA |
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Point Mutation (Neutral Mutation, Missense Mutation, Missense Mutation)
Frameshift Mutations (tanning) |
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| when a single nucleotide is changed to something different |
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| one base is changed thus changing the codon to something different, a change in the DNA still codes for the same amino acid, the exact same protein is built. |
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| one base is changed thus changing the codon to something different, the codon no longer codes for the appropriate amino acid, thus resulting in a different protein |
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| one base is changed thus changing the codon to something different, a stop codon. Now protein synthesis would immediately stop, whether the protein is finished or not. |
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| the loss or gain of nucleotides changes that codon and every other codon down the line |
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| Ts bonded to Ts (not As) that bend the DNA and lead to Frameshift mutations because If not repaired they are removed leading to frameshift (melanoma) |
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| molecules that look a bit like normal DNA nucleotides but don't follow the normal pairing rules |
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| used to make the HIV virus mutate it's DNA and hopefully kill it. Of course in addition to mutating viral replication AZT also mutates human cells at the same time. It's rather toxic but in the early days of AIDS there was nothing else in the arsenal. |
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| a known carcinogen that is commonly found in peanut butter and it also causes frameshift mutations. |
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| a test that can be performed to test for the mutatgenic property of a chemical using bacteria as a test organism. The test detects if a chemical an mutate DNA. |
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| the matching set of letters to pair with the codon on mRNA |
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| The gene for ___ production has a point mutation |
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| shows that the suject is a mutagen |
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| There is a ___% correlation between mutagens and carcinogens |
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| when an organism incorporates some DNA from another source |
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| two bits of DNA are merged to become a new piece of information. Its an efficient way to gain an advantage as the new characteristic is simply adopted |
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| a bit of DNA gets incorporated into the bacterial chromosome from the environment |
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| Griffith's transformation experiment |
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| showed transformation and observed phenotype changes as bacteria picked up DNA from the enviorment |
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| make it difficult for the Immune system to fight off an infection |
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| genes to be transferred from one bacterial cell to another but a virus infects a bacterium and some bacterial DNA captured inside |
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| Bacteriophage (or just Phage) |
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| cannot replicate on their own and infect a host cell and take over the replicating machinery of the cell to make baby viruses. |
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| some DNA from one bacterium is transferred directly to another bacterium through bacterial sex and recombinant Fertility plasmids |
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| extra bits of DNA found in circular and an ori site just like the bacterial chromosome which mean they get replicated each time the chromosome does before cell division |
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| contains genes that allow for the formation of sex pili |
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| Hfr (high frequency recombinant) |
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| the Fertility plasmid inserts itself into the bacterial chromosome |
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| when the plasmid extracts itself from the chromosome it takes a bit of the bacterial chromosome with it. Then when it passes a copy to another F- cell, the cell not only gets the F plasmid it also gets a bit of DNA from the first cells as well. |
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| Selective breeding programs |
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| considered something of a science even though the methods were crude and the results did not always turn out as expected. |
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| discovered genetic work on plants |
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| discovered the description of DNA itself |
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| Polymerase Chain Reaction Results & Requirements |
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| thousands of exact copies of the initial sample of DNA. It has increased the speed by which scientists can analyze DNA sequences. only needs a few cells at the end of a hair follicle or a drop of blood provide |
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| Polymerase Chain Reaction |
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| a way to make more DNA when u only have a drop of blood, heats up DNA to split and a thermofile enzyme and DNA polyermase are used |
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| sets of DNA fragments being separated according to size |
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| a general map of the 20,000 or more genes found in humans from the late 80’s |
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| Restriction enzymes (restriction endonucleases) |
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| enzyme naturally found in bacteria which chop up DNA for recycling of nucleotides |
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| a staggered but rather than a straight clean cut across both strands leaving a small part of single stranded DNA exposed |
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| new combination of multiple strands of DNA |
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| restriction enzymes are used to cut DNA into a collection of different sized pieces |
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| bacteria component that makes it an excellent tool of genetic engineering |
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| Antibiotic resistance, pathogenic traits and the ability to spread the plasmid |
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| Do all bacteria have plasmids? |
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| No, Some bacteria can even contain multiple plasmids while others don’t have any at all. |
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| a vehicle we create that will deliver a gene to a target cell |
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| How does the vector plasmid get into a cell? |
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| an electric current allows it to get through the cell wall. |
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| Using gene transfer techniques it is possible to create new varieties of plants |
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Bacillus thuringiensis
(Bt toxin) |
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| kills insects, not FDA approved |
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| goals of plant engineering |
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| to provide seeds of plants that can grow in harsh conditions, and developing new plants that are easier to grow for a farmer, particularly those in poor countries where famine is a real problem and modern farming practices are rare. |
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| Agrobacterium tumefaciens |
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| a bacterium that has a plasmid that naturally inserts DNA into a plant cell but causes plant tumors and is considered a big problem in agriculture |
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| Human Engineering: Gene Therapy |
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| The permanent correction of a genetic condition |
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| the insertion of genes that correct the function of mutated ones |
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| Can we use plasmids for human gene therapy? |
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| No, Eucaryotic cells will not function with a plasmid |
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| How are genes transfered in human gene theraphy? |
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| Viruses attach to host cells and insert their genetic material |
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| Why the interest in GMO's? |
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| agriculture, We need to created more food because the world's population is growing |
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| plants have been engineered to contain genes from other plants or even other organisms altogether in order to create traits in a target organism that would not be possible with traditional selective breeding methods |
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| How does the Bt toxin work? |
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| it attacks and destroys insects |
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| risks associated with Genetically Modified organisms |
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| changes to the environment if GMO's were released into wild populations of plants |
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| first genetically modified food |
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| Flavr Savr tomato in 1994 |
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| by Peter Beyer and Ingo Potrykus. A gene for beta carotene production was transferred from a daffodil into a ____ plant |
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| 2 organisms may result in new phenotype, and will result in the thousands of genotypic changes |
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| results in change of a single genotype, will give the desired phenotype, and genes are well characterized and function is well known |
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| a hormone that controlls the production of Red Blood cells. The more blood cells the more oxygen which means muscle won't fatigue as easily |
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| the abuse of legitimate medical gene therapy treatments that modify a person's genetic makeup |
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| a hormone that controls how big a muscle can gets |
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