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| nonobservable mechanisms can be studied |
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| belief (fact) through repetition |
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| many studies yielding the same outcome |
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| knowledge through experience |
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| Operational Definition (from Logical Positivism) |
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| statement that links axioms to protocol sentences |
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| research approach that tests two or more competing hypotheses in order to falsify the alternatives |
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| Probabilistic (statistical determinism) |
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| There is always some error present that keeps us from completely knowing a cause |
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| phenomenon cannot be used to define/describe itself (circular logic) OR the explanans may not be in the explanandum |
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| candidate answer/predicted outcome or relation |
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| Idea that states that small initial differences can lead to large differences in outcome |
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| philosophy that states that the goals of science should be description, prediciton and control |
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| Objectivity (dispassionate reason) |
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| the idea that data should be interpreted, understood, or reported as is (without personal biases) |
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| universe/nature is lawful and causes can be discovered and understood |
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| used to describe when cultural/environmental conditions produce a favorable climate for a given discovery or theory |
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| Basic vs. Applied Research |
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BR: concerned with acquiring basic knowledge/principles about a phenomenon
AR: concerned with a particular and immediate problem regarding a phenomenon |
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| Protocol sentences vs. Axioms |
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PS: statements that contain the observation terms
A: statements that contain the theoretical terms |
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| Mundane vs. Experimental realism |
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Mundane: how closely a study mirrors real life
Experimental Realism: (considered more important than Mundane Realism) extent to which a study has an impact on the participants (elicit a real response) |
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| Quantitative vs. Qualitative research |
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QUANT: numerical, statistical analysis often interested in the magnitude of changes
QUAL: descriptive, narrative analysis often interested in the type of changes |
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| Quantitative vs. Qualitative research |
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QUANT: numerical, statistical analysis often interested in the magnitude of changes
QUAL: descriptive, narrative analysis often interested in the type of changes |
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| Directional vs. Nondirectional hypotheses |
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D: hypothesis that seeks, predicts, or expects one particular outcome
N: hypothesis that seeks, predicts, or expects any different outcome |
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| How is Logical Positivism a compromise between Realism and Positivism? How has LP influenced they way in which we theorize (make hypotheses)? |
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| LP is a compromise in that it allows us to talk about mechanisms that we cannot directly obserbe without being "mystical" (realism), but requires us to couch these mechamisms in terms of directly observable parameters (positivism). This structure provided by LP has been adopted as the standard means for describing a hypothesis (received view of theories) |
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| Briefly state the steps needed to turn a resarch idea into a research problem (testable hypothesis) |
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| Once you have an idea, one needs to first turn the idea into an empirical question that can be tested. In doing this you have to insure that the hypothesis is concrete and can be measured and manipulated. Also the hypothesis must be logical. |
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| What ethical problems were violated in the Willowbrook, Tuskeegee and MK-ULTRA studies? Using one of these studies, briefly illustrate |
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all of them violated the principle of informed consent.
Tuskegee: black men in the south were not treated for Syphillis and were lured into participating in the study (frequenting the doctor's office) by food and transportation. This study eventually cost the participants their lives. |
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| statements that are accepted as fact because the source of the statement is believed to be an expert or influential in some manner |
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| If you reason that a fapse premise (p) leads to a false consequent (q) you will have engaged in a(n) __________ arguement that is called _____________. |
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| invalid; denying the antecedent |
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Which is true about pseudoscience?
1. it seldom lasts very long because they are so easily falsified
2. to create apparent legitimacy, simply take phenomena and add unnecessary complexity
3. pseudoscientific theories are flexible enough to account for |
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| 3!!! Pseudoscientific theories are flexible enough to account for any outcome and are therefore untestable as theories |
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| According to APA guidelines, when is it appropriate to deceive participants about the true purpose of the study? |
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| ONly when the research hypothesis could not be tested any other way |
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| participants will take the procedures seriously |
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Today, Milgrim's obediance research is most questionable with respect to which issue?
a. confidentiality
b. debriefing
c. following up on participants to insure their well being
d. allowing participants to quit at any time in the procedure |
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| d! allowing participants to quit at any time in the procedure |
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| When planning any study, the research psychologist faces the conflicting demands of producing meaningful research and ___________ |
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| respecting the rights of human participants |
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Which of the following is NOT an empirical question?
a. can prayer reduce blood pressure?
b. are prayers regularly answered by God?
c. do college seniors pray for different things than college freshmen?
d. do rural populations pray more than urban pop |
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| b! are prayers regularly answered by God? |
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A 'good' scientific question should do all but
a. suggest the nature of the answer
b. provide a means generating an empirical answer
c. provide the acceptable answer
d. be worth answering |
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| c! provide the acceptable answer |
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If a theory is true, then event X should occur. Which of the following outcomes illustrates the fallacy of affirming the consequent?
a. event X occurs, therefore the theory has been proven true
b. event X occurs, therefore the theory has been supported |
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| a! Event X occurs, therefore the theory has been proven true |
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| confound removed from a study |
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| variable is represented equally in each group |
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| variable is represented equally in each group |
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| tests effects of pretest and treatment |
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| Within Group Counterbalancing |
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| different sequences to each group |
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| confound is reduced to a single level |
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| bias distributed across groups |
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| unequal participant dropout |
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| outcome depends on presentation order |
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| Within participant counterbalancing |
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| each participant gets all sequences |
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| examination of spoken or written material |
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| Name the threat: different experimenters are used in pre and post testing to rate aggression in participants |
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| Name the threat: in an experiment that has an easy and a difficult task manipulation, the experimenter lends more support to the difficult task group. Results show no effect of difficulty |
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| Rosenthal - experimenter expectancy |
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| Name the threat: in testing a new educational method for teaching geometry, wo classes are used. One class tells the other what to expect |
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| Diffusion or Imitation of treatments |
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| Name the threat: in testing the effects of alcohol on performance, two groups are tested. One group receives drinks containing alcohol while the other does not. Both groups show a decrease in performance. |
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| Name the threat: professor, who has just announced that his students have failed the test, conducts a survey using those same students. Students intentionally respond randomly |
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| Name the threat: in a language learning study, one group receives tutors while the other group does not, upon discovering this the "no tutor" group works harder to learn the language |
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| Compensatory Rivalry by respondents receiving less desirable treatment |
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| Waiting list (group) control |
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| design in which one group receives the treatment after the study is completed |
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| Non-equivalent (ex post facto) |
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| Design where groups are formed during the study (groups self-select) |
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| Name the threat: a researcher is interested in studying attitudes towards race, in the experiment several questions are asked regarding how comfortable participants were with people of different backrounds. Results show no difference in comfort levels |
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| Orne Effect (demand characteristics) |
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| In survey designs, question format where people are asked to indicate amount of agreement |
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| Matched Subjects vs. Within subjects design |
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MS: equates or treats two (or more) people as the same person based on a relevant variable
WS: uses the same participants for all experimental conditions |
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| Placebo vs. Yoked Control group designs |
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P: control group receives an "inactive" treatment
YC: control group is dependent on the actions of the experimental participants |
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| Complete vs. Incomplete Counterbalancing |
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C: all conditions are represented equally and all possible sequences are represented
IC: all conditions are represented equally but not all possible sequences are represented |
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| Manipulated vs. Subject variables |
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M: properties of the experimental setting that the experimenter has control over and can change
S: properties of the participants - cannot be manipulated by the experimenter |
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| Participant Observation vs. Ethnographic Study |
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P: experimenter joins group, usually short term
E: experimenter immersed in group for an extended period |
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If there is a confounding variable in an experiment, you cannot:
a. know the cause of the outcome
b. obtain a significant result
c. select participants randomly
d. avoid makinga Type II error |
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| a! know the cause of the outcome |
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Which of the following is not a necessary characteristic of a true experiment:
a. a pretest
b. random assignment of participants to groups
c. control of confounding variables
d. at least two levels of the independent variable |
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| Lee and Aronson's "moving room" study used a _______ design |
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| single factor, repeated measures |
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Quasi-experimental research:
a. tends to have greater internal validity than true experimental research
b. tends to have greater external validity than true experimental research
c. does not differ from true expermental research in internal and externa |
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| b! it tends to have greater external validity than true experimental research |
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| In a nonequivalent before-after design, we compare |
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| the change in scores frompretest to posttest for the experimental and control groups |
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The primary advantage of within-subjects designs over between-subjects designs is that within-subjects designs
a. are unable to test for interactions
b. avoid, by definition, the problem of equivalent froups
c. avoid, by definition, the problem of sequ |
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| b! avoid, by definition, the problem of equivalent groups |
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| A study by evaluating the effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction in reading compared two groups, one using computers, the other not using them. THe resarches first tested the students for "reading readiness" and unsured that the average readiness |
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| Changes in participant's responses that are due to the occurrence of some event between testing sessions are due to this confound |
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| In order to control for age differences in learning, an edxerimenter uses only 12 year old children. The experiment is employing what type of control technique? |
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| If every person in the population has an equal chance of being selected of ra study, then the selection is... |
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| How does the analysis of data from a non-equivalent quasi-experimental design differ from a control group pre/post experimental design? Why does the analysis need to be different fo these designs? |
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| In control preposit designs, you can compare the posttest scores of the two groups directly. In the nonequivalent design, you need to analyze the rate of change between the pre and posttests for both groups. The technique differs because in the NE design you can't assume the groups were equal at the start while in the CPP design it is assumed that you have ensured that the groups are equal at the start |
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| Descriptive (non-experimental) designs are criticized for not being able to address causality. Is this a valid concern regarding these designs? Why or Why not? |
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| While it can be a valid concern, it is not a "fatal flaw". This is because descriptive designs are not "engineered" to address causation, rather the focus is to generate or record the nature of the phenomenon or the patterns within it. In short, these designs follow the positivist tradition of describe, predict, and control (explanation is not a requirement) |
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| What is the Jeffersonian view of research? Why is this a novel approach to understanding the research process? |
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| Categorizes research via the constraints of the problem (purpose, representation) rather than the constraints of the design or method. Highlights the importance of valuing all forms of research used to address a particular problem |
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| What is the advantage of a multi-level, single factor design? |
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| multiple comparisons at one time, allows you to avoid 'inflated' alpha levels, avoids problems of multiple t-tests in single factor designs |
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| Discuss the ANOVA: what does it do? what is its advantage over the t-test? |
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| ANOVA tests for the presence of some overall significance that could exist somewhere among the various levels of the independent variable. Advantage over t-test is that it allows you to test multiple levels at one time without the chance of making multiple Type-I errors |
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| How does the design of your study influence the nature of your analysis (in terms of ANOVA) |
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| the more you design/control - the greater the ability of the ANOVA to partition the variability in your study |
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| What are the advantages of factorial designs? |
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1. economical (allow for testing multiple hypotheses with fewer particpants...efficient)
2. interpretation (of several hypotheses, ability to talk about interaction, generalizeable) |
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| What are the disadvantages of factorial designs? |
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1. # of participants may become inhibitive if there are many treatments
2. can be difficult to interpret (particularly if interactions are significant)
3. large commitment
4. not designed to determine 'optimal' level of treatments |
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| overall effect of a single independent variable (possible in a factorial design) |
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| effect of one independent variable depends on the level of another independent variable (factorial design) |
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| scores for different conditions are all so close to the maximum that no difference could occur (factorial design) |
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| at least one variable must be tested between subjects and at least one subject must be tested within subjects |
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| person by environmental design (environment being any manipulated independent variable) |
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| P x E design includes both a between and a within subjects |
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| Time to take out your notes and go over interpreting factorial designs!!! |
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| Descriptive Small-N Designs |
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| deal with case studies. intenseive descriptions and analyses of individuals that bring together relevant aspects of the person's history and present situation. done within general framework or theory. Formed bases for Freud's theories |
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| Empirical small-n designs |
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| single participant designs, evaluate effectiveness of applied behavioral programs, carefully defined terms, establish baselines and apply some technique to be evaluated |
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| general descriptive report concerning the phenomenon or behavior of interest |
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| descriptive report concerning the change in phenomenon or behavior after the manipulation of some variable or the administering of some treatment |
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| what is the focus of small-n designs, and what makes them different from traditional research designs? |
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| data of interest is that of the individual, not of the group. This permits detailed observation and may reveal nuances or subtleties of behavior |
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| what caused the change in psychology away from small-n designs? |
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| the development of the ANOVA by Fisher. The increase in the number of participants and the complexity of designs has been aided by the computer and advances in statistical software which allows us to test multiple independent variables and dependent varibles |
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| when baseline and treatment phases are alternated in some manner (logic: if a person responds in a systematic manner that coincides with the presentation and removal of the treatment, then it is probable that the treatment and not some extraneous variable is causing the change in behavior) |
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| extension of the reversal design where multiple independent behaviors are observed at one time (logic: person serves as his/her own control. once baselines have been established for each behavior, a treatment is applied to one behavior and the changes are noted...the key is that the treatment should only effect the behavior being manipulated and not the others |
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| What is psychophysics ? what is the goal of this field? what kinds of studies are done in this field? |
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psychophysics are a set of experimental procedures aimed at determining the "scale of experience (the mind)". Much of this focus was on discovering the threshold of experience:
1. absolute threshold: point of awareness
2. difference threshold? just noticeable difference
To assess this, the method of limits, the method of constant stimuli, and themethod of adjustment were developed |
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| why is psychophysics well suited to small-n designs? |
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| it does not make a lot of sense to test thresholds on multiple people and using a single individual provides better information. Also, small n designs give more control than using large n numbers, thus providing less error variance |
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