1)Stabilize membranes,

2)Make bile salts to digest fat,

3)Synth vit E/A/Ubiquinone,

4)Precursor of steroid hormones.

HMGCoA Reductase (HMGCoA+2NADPH-->Mevalonate+NADP);

inhib by AMP, cholesterol, glu;

stim by insulin, ATP.

HMGCoA reductase inhibiting statins,

Positively charged bile salt resins.

Proteins-inactivate enzymes, promote, aggradation, degradation.

Lipids-lipid peroxidation, oxidation of polyunsaturated lipids which destroys mbrnes (destroys pmf!).

DNA/RNA-cleaves phosphodiester bond, base-mispairing.

1) Monoamine oxidases remove nts but produce lrg amts of H2O2,

2) Brain is high in iron --> Fenton rxn --> hydroxyl radicals.

Vit E donates H and becomes radical itself --> either:

a) 2 E radicals excreted or

b) VitC will restore.

Then either a) 2 VitC radicals excreted or

b) Glutathione restores and -->GSSG.

1)activated under conditions of low oxidant stress to prevent high levels of oxidant stress,

2) NADPH oxidases in macrophages&neutrophils --> respiratory burst.

During prolonged ischemia ATP is broken down producing xanthine. Normally xanthine dehydrogenase oxidases xanthine to NADH but under stress and because of the new availability of O2 (from reperfusion) it is converted to xanthine oxygenase which still forms NADH but using O2 (rather than NAD+) as cofactor --> results in superoxide radicals.

In addn QH2 has accumulated due to resp chain back-up.

1)Synth new protein,

2)Synth regulatory enzymes in response to metabolic conditions,

3)Synth nitrogeneous metabolites,

4)Provide energy via their degradation,

5)Provide Cs for gluconeogenesis and FA synth.

Degraded to pyruvate, AcCoA, TCA cycle intermediates --> 1)oxidized,

2)converted to glucose & stored as glycogen, or

3)converted to FAs& stored as adipose triacylglycerols.

Last step is arginine-->urea+ornithine,

ornithine re-enters cycle via ornithine+carbamoylP-->citrulline+Pi.

Citrulline for Ornithine.

Ornithine needs to get into mito to combine w Carbamoyl P from CPSI rxn, Ornithine+CarbamoylP-->Citrulline, Citrulline mito-->cyto to enter urea cycle.

1)Low protein diet,

2)maintain blood pH w acetate, which is acidic,

3)clean gut of bactera,

4)benzoate/phenylacetate remove glycine/glutamine, taking NH3 with it.

In muscle: NH3+Glutamate-->Glutamine (via Glutamine synthase)-->blood-->

In liver: Glutaminase hydrolyzes --> Glutamate+NH3,

NH3-->urea cycle,

Glutamate+NADP-->aKG+NADPH+NH3 via glutamate dehydrogenase.

Fumarate-->malate (hydration) --> OAA (oxidaton); OAA-->1)+AcACoA-->citrate-->Krebs,

2)gluconeogenesis,

3)pyruvate,

4)aspartate via transamination-->urea cycle.