Shared Flashcard Set

Details

Medical Human Physiology
General terms in a variety of subjects in Medical H.P.
151
Medical
Undergraduate 1
04/28/2009

Additional Medical Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
Intracellular fluid
Definition
Fluid inside a cell; tends to have large amounts of potassium, magnesium, and phosphate ions
Term
Internal environment
Definition
Extracellular fluids in which cells live; contains large amounts of sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate ions as well nutrients such as oxygen, glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids
Term
Homeostasis
Definition
Maintainence of nearly constant conditions in the internal environment
Term
Intercellular spaces
Definition
Spaces between tissue cells
Term
Interstitial fluid
Definition
Fluid that fills the intercellular spaces
Term
Autonomic Nervous System
Definition
Large segment of the nervous system that works at a subconscious level and controls many functions of the internal organs such as the secretions by many of the body's glands
Term
Endocrine glands
Definition
Glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
Term
Insulin
Definition
Hormone that controls glucose metabolism
Term
Baroreceptors
Definition
Nerve receptors which are stimulated by the stretch of the arterial wall
Term
Bifurcate
Definition
To divide into two parts or branches
Term
Vasomotor Center
Definition
Portion of the medulla oblongata that regulates blood pressure and other homeostatic processes
Term
Tetanic contractions
Definition
Prolonged muscle spasms without intervening periods of relaxation
Term
Low potassium ion concentration in extracellular fluid
Definition
Problem in homeostasis resulting with a person likely to be paralyzed as a result of nerves' inability to carry signals
Term
High potassium ion concentration in extracellular fluid
Definition
Problem in homeostasis resulting with heart muscle becoming severely depressed
Term
Low calcium ion concentration in extracellular fluid
Definition
Problem in homeostasis resulting with a person experiencing tetanic contraction of muscles throughout the body because of excess nerve impulses in the peripheral nerves
Term
Low glucose concentration in extracellular fluid
Definition
Problem in homeostasis resulting with a person experiencing frequent and extreme mental irritability and often even convulsions
Term
"Gain" of a Control system
Definition
Correction/Error in a control system.
Term
Control systems
Definition
Homeostatic control mechanisms (positive/negative feedback)
Term
Clotting factors
Definition
Multiple enzymes that are activated during blood clotting
Term
Atherosclerotic plaque
Definition
A deposit of fat and other substances that accumulate in the lining of the artery wall.
Term
feed-forward control
Definition
Principle used by the brain in order to cause muscle contractions when body movements are too fast for the nerve signals to move from the body parts to the brain and back
Term
To apprise
Definition
To give notice; inform
Term
Adaptive control
Definition
Modification/correction of reflexes after an error in them has occured
Term
Protoplasm
Definition
The different substances that make up the cell collectively
Term
Phospholipids
Definition
A class of lipids that are a major component of all cell membranes and that contain a diglyceride, a phosphate group, and a simple organic molecule such as choline
Term
Glycoproteins
Definition
Proteins that contain oligosaccharide chains (glycans) covalently attached to their polypeptide side-chains.
Term
Oligosaccharide
Definition
a saccharide polymer containing a small number (typically three to ten) of component sugars, also known as simple sugars.
Term
Glycogen
Definition
The polysaccharide of glucose (Glc) which functions as the secondary short term energy storage in animal cells.
Term
Intersperse
Definition
To scatter among, between, or on
Term
Globular
Definition
Having the shape of a globe or globule; spherical.
Term
Intergral proteins
Definition
Proteins that protrude all the way through a cell membrane; they can serve as receptors for water-oluble chemicals that cannot easily penetrate the cell membrane, as carrier proteins, as structural channels/pores, and as enzymes.
Term
Peripheral proteins
Definition
Proteins that are attached only to one surface of a cell membrane and do not penetrate all the way
Term
Carrier proteins
Definition
Proteins that transport substances across a cell membrane that otherwise would not be abe to pass through the bilayer
Term
Ligand
Definition
A substance that is able to bind to and form a complex with a biomolecule to serve a biological purpose. In a narrower sense, it is a signal triggering molecule binding to a site on a target protein, by intermolecular forces such as ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds and Van der Waals forces.
Term
Second messengers
Definition
Proteins in the cytoplasm that relay signals fromt the extracellular part of the receptor to the interior of the cell
Term
Glycolipids
Definition
Carbohydrate-attached lipids. Their role is to provide energy and also serve as markers for cellular recognition.
Term
Proteoglycans
Definition
Glycoproteins that are heavily glycosylated. They have a core protein with one or more covalently attached glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chain(s). The chains are long, linear carbohydrate polymers that are negatively charged under physiological conditions, due to the occurrence of sulfate and uronic acid groups.
Term
Glycosylation
Definition
The enzymatic process that links saccharides to produce glycans, either free or attached to proteins and lipids. This enzymatic process produces one of four fundamental components of all cells (along with nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids) and also provides a co-translational and post-translational modification mechanism that modulates the structure and function of membrane and secreted proteins.
Term
Glycan
Definition
A polysaccharide or oligosaccharide
Term
Glycocalyx
Definition
Extracellular polymeric material (glycoprotein) produced by some bacteria, epithelia and other cells. May have a negative electrical charge that will repel other negative objects away from the cell; may attach multiple cells together and/or act as a receptor substance for binding hormones or even enter into an immune reaction.
Term
Moiety
Definition
A part or half of a molecule
Term
Cytosol
Definition
The clear fluid proprtion of the cytoplasm composed mainly of water, proteins, electrolytes, and glucose. In it, cell particles are dispersed.
Term
Endoplasmic matrix
Definition
A watery medium (different from the cytosol outside of the organelle) that fills the tubules and vesicles of the ER.
Term
Granular Endoplasmic Reticulum
Definition
Part of the ER organelle that has ribosomes attached to it. It is responsible for most of the protein production.
Term
Agranular Endoplasmic Reticulum
Definition
Part of the ER organelle that functions for the synthesis of lipid substances and for other processes of the cells promoted by intrareticular enzymes.
Term
Golgi Apparatus
Definition
Organelle prominent in secretory cells. It functions in association with the ER and forms lysosomes, secretory vescicles, and other cytoplasmic components. It has the capability of synthesizing certain carbohydrates that cannot be formed in the ER.
Term
Peroxisome
Definition
Organelle that contains oxidases and catalases that oxidize many substances that would otherwise be poisonous to the cell. Detoxication from some alcohol occurs in this organelle in the liver.
Term
Oxidase
Definition
Enzyme that catalyzes an oxidation/reduction reaction involving molecular oxygen (O2) as the electron acceptor. In these reactions, oxygen is reduced to water (H2O) or hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
Term
Catalase
Definition
Common enzyme found in nearly all living organisms which are exposed to oxygen, where it functions to catalyze the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen.
Term
Oxidation rxn
Definition
Gain of oxygen
Term
Hydrolase
Definition
Enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of a chemical bond.
Term
Hydrolysis
Definition
A chemical reaction during which one or more water molecules are split into hydrogen and hydroxide ions which may go on to participate in further reactions.
Term
Reduction rxn
Definition
Loss of oxygen
Term
Secretory vesicles/granules
Definition
"organelles" used for storage and transport of substances inside the cell; may also secret substances from cell.
Term
Proenzymes
Definition
Enzymes that are not yet activated
Term
Acinus (acinar, acini)
Definition
Berry-shaped termination of an exocrine gland, where the secretion is produced.
Term
Exocrine glands
Definition
Glands that secrete their products (hormones) into ducts (duct glands).
Term
Filaments
Definition
A long chain of protein subunits (fibrillar proteins), such as those found in hair, muscle, or in flagella. They are often bundled together for strength and rigidity.
Term
Actin
Definition
The monomeric subunit of two types of filaments in cells: microfilaments, one of the three major components of the cytoskeleton, and thin filaments, part of the contractile apparatus in muscle cells. it is a globular, roughly 42-kDa protein found in all eukaryotic cells (the only known exception being nematode sperm) where it may be present at concentrations of over 100 μM. It is also one of the most highly-conserved proteins, differing by no more than 20% in species as diverse as algae and humans.
Term
Ectoplasm
Definition
The outer part of a cell's cytoplasm.
Term
Precursor
Definition
A compound that participates in the chemical reaction that produces another compound.
Term
Myosin
Definition
The large family of motor proteins found in eukaryotic tissues. They are responsible for actin-based motility.
Term
Motility
Definition
The ability to move spontaneously and actively, consuming energy in the process. It can apply to either single-celled or multicellular organisms.
Term
Tubulin
Definition
Globular proteins that make up microtubules.
Term
Microtubules
Definition
One of the components of the cytoskeleton. They have a diameter of 25 nm and length varying from 200 nanometers to 25 micrometers; they serve as structural components within cells and are involved in many cellular processes including mitosis, cytokinesis, and vesicular transport.
Term
Spindle apparatus
Definition
The structure that separates the chromosomes into the daughter cells during cell division. It is part of the cytoskeleton in eukaryotic cells. Depending on the type of cell division, it is also referred to as the mitotic spindle during mitosis and the meiotic spindle during meiosis.
Term
Nucleolus
Definition
The accumulation of large amounts of RNA and proteins in the Nucleoplasm.
Term
Rickettsia
Definition
A genus of motile, Gram-negative, non-sporeforming, highly pleomorphic bacteria that can present as cocci (0.1 μm in diameter), rods (1-4 μm long) or thread-like (10 μm long). Obligate intracellular parasites, thet depend on entry, growth, and replication within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic host cells (typically endothelial cells).[1] Because of this, they cannot live in artificial nutrient environments and are grown either in tissue or embryo cultures (typically, chicken embryos are used). In the past they were regarded as microorganisms positioned somewhere between viruses and true bacteria. The majority of these bacteria are susceptible to antibiotics of the tetracycline group.
Term
Pleomorphism
Definition
The occurrence of two or more structural forms during a life cycle, especially of certain plants. In the first decades of the 20th century, the term was used to refer to the supposed ability of bacteria to change shape or to exist in a number of morphological (changing) forms.
Term
Spore
Definition
A reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions,
Term
Obligate
Definition
By necessity (adj).
Term
Endocytosis
Definition
Ingestion by the Cell.
Term
Pinocytosis
Definition
Injestion of minute particles into a cell by formation of vesicles consisting of extracellular fluid and particulate constituents inside the cell. It is the only means by which most large macromolecules can enter the cell.
Term
Clathrin
Definition
Fibrillar protein which plays a major role in the formation of vesicles.
Term
Coated pits
Definition
Areas on the outer surface of the cell membrane where specialized protein receptors for pinocytosis are concentrated. The intracellular part of this area is covered with a latticework of clathrin as well as some contractile filaments such as actin and myosin.
Term
Latticework
Definition
An open framework made of strips of metal, wood, or similar material overlapped or overlaid in a regular, usually crisscross, diagonal pattern.
Term
Opsonization
Definition
The process by which bacteria are altered by opsonins so as to become more readily and more efficiently engulfed by phagocytes.
Term
Opsonin
Definition
Any molecule that acts as a binding enhancer for the process of phagocytosis, for example, by coating the negatively-charged molecules on the membrane.
Term
Digestive vesicle
Definition
Organelle formed inside the cell cytoplasm from a vesicle into which lysosmes had emptied their acid hydrolases. In it, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and other substances are hydrolyzed into products such as amino acids, glucose, and phosphates.
Term
Residual body (during digestion of pinocytotic and phagocytotic foreign substances inside the cell)
Definition
What is left of the digestive vesicle after digestion occurs. It is excreted by exocytosis and contains indigestible substances.
Term
Autolysis
Definition
The removal of a complete cell by digestion from ruptured lysosomes (due to damage to the cell).
Term
Lysozyme
Definition
Bactericidal agent found in lysosomes which disolves the bacterial cell membrane.
Term
Lysoferrin
Definition
Bactericidal agent found in lysosomes which binds iron and other substances before they can promote bacterial growth.
Term
Extrude
Definition
To push or thrust out.
Term
Hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulfate
Definition
Two important large saccharide polymers bound with small amounts of protein that are produced mainly in the Golgi appartus. They are major components of proteoglycans secreted in mucus and other glandular secretions; they are the major components of the ground substance outside cells in the interstitial spaces, acting as filler between collagen fibers and cells; and they are principal components of the organic matrix in both cartilage and bone.
Term
Exocytosis
Definition
Process of secretory vesicles fusing with the cell membrane in order to excrete substances; mostly stimulated by the entry of calcium ions into the cell.
Term
Ameboid Movement
Definition
The movement of an entire cell in relation to its surroundings; usally begins with the protrusion of a pseudopodium from one end of the cell which then projects itself out and partially secures itself (with protruding receptor proteins) to ligands in a new tissue area. Then, the remainder of the cell is pulled towards the pseudopodium.
Term
Pseudopodium (pseudopods or pseudopodia in plural)
Definition
Temporary projection of eukaryotic cells. It extends and contracts by reversible assembly of actin subnits into microfilaments. Filaments near the cell’s end interact with myosin which causes contraction. The whole structure extends intself until the actin reassembles itself into a network. This is how amoebas move as well as some other cells such as white blood cells.
Term
Taxis
Definition
Innate behavioural response by an organism to a directional stimulus or gradient of stimulus intensity. In this response, the organism has motility and demonstrates guided movement towards or away from the stimulus source.
Term
Chemotaxis
Definition
The phenomenon in which body cells, bacteria, and other single-cell or multicellular organisms direct their movements according to certain chemicals in their environment. It is the most important initiator of ameboid locomotion.
Term
Chemotactic substance
Definition
Any chemical substance that causes chemotaxis to occur.
Term
Positive chemotaxis
Definition
Chemotaxis from a lower concentration of a chemotactic substance to a higher concentration; the most common form of chemotaxis.
Term
Tropism
Definition
Biological phenomenon, indicating growth or turning movement of a biological organism, usually a plant, in response to an environmental stimulus.
Term
Kinesis
Definition
Non-directional movement or activity of a cell or an organism in response to a stimulus.
Term
Ciliary movement
Definition
A whiplike movement of cilia on the curface of cells. Occurs only in two places in the human body: On the surfaces or respiratory airways and on the inside of the uterine tubes.
Term
Ciliary movement
Definition
A whiplike movement of cilia on the curface of cells. Occurs only in two places in the human body: On the surfaces or respiratory airways and on the inside of the uterine tubes.
Term
Ostium
Definition
A small opening or orifice, as in a body organ
Term
The ostium of the Fallopian tube
Definition
The opening in the infundibulum of uterine tube into the abdominal cavity which is surrounded by fimbriae. In ovulation, the oocyte enters the Fallopian tube through this opening.
Term
Infundibulum
Definition
A funnel (pipe) - shaped structure (cavity or organ).
Term
Fimbria
Definition
A fringe, border, or edge; a fringelike structure
Term
Axoneme
Definition
Cytoskeletal structure that makes up the inner core of cilia and flagella and serves as the ‘‘skeleton’’ of these structures. It is composed of ceveral microtubules alligned in parallel (the 9x2 + 2 structure) as well as some proteins.
Term
Dynein
Definition
Motor protein in cells which converts the chemical energy contained in ATP into the mechanical energy of movement. It transports various cellular cargo by ‘‘walking’’ along cytoskeletal microtubules towards the minus-end of the microtubule which is usually oriented towards the cell center.
Term
Kinesin
Definition
A class of motor proteins found in eukaryotic cells that move along the microtubule cables towards the plus-end of the microtubule. It is powered by the dephosphorylation of ATP and it supports several cellular functions during mitosis, meiosis, and transport of cargo such as axonal transport.
Term
ATPases
Definition
A class of enzymes that catalyze the decomposition of ATP into ADP and a free phosphate ion. This dephosphorylation reaction releases energy which the enzyme usually harnesses to drive other chemical reactions.
Term
Nexin
Definition
A protein that prevents microtubules in the outer layer of axonemes from movement with respect to eac hother. Otherwise vesicular transport proteins such as dynein would dissolve the whole structure.
Term
Axoplasmic/axonal transport
Definition
A cellular process responsible for movement of mitochondria, lipids, synaptic vesicles, proteins, and other cell parts to and from a neuron’s cell body through the cytoplasm of its axon.
Term
Synaptic/neurotransmitter vesicles
Definition
Vesicles in neurons that store various neurotransmitters that are released at the synapse. This release is regulated by a calcium channel.
Term
Neurotransmitters
Definition
Chemicals which relay, amplify, and modulate signals between a neuron and another cell.
Term
Chemical synapses
Definition
Specialized junctions through which neurons signal to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in muscles or glands.
Term
Purines
Definition
Adenine and guanine
Term
Pyrimidines
Definition
Thymine and Cytosine
Term
RNA start codon
Definition
AUG
Term
RNA stop codons
Definition
UAA, UAG, UGA
Term
Polyribosomes
Definition
Clusters of ribosomes attached to the same strand of mRNA during translation.
Term
Peptide bond (amide bond)
Definition
Chemical bond formed between two molecules when the carboxyl group of one molecule reacts with the amine group of the other molecule, thereby releasing a water molecule. This is a dehydration synthesis reaction.
Term
Histones
Definition
Chief protein components of chromatin that act as spools around which DNA winds and play a role in gene regulation (DNA wound around them cannot be transcribed).
Term
Colchicine
Definition
Chemical that can prevent the formation of the mitotic spindle (it inhibits microtubule polymerization by binding to tubulin, one of the main constituents of microtubules), and therefore mitosis even though the replication of DNA continues. Currently, it is mainly prescribed in the treatment of gout as well as investigated for its potential use as a anti-cancer drug. In neurons, it disrupts axoplasmic transport.
Term
Secondary metabolites
Definition
Organic compounds that are not directly involved in the normal growth, development or reproduction of organisms. Their absense from the body does not result in immediate death.
Term
Gout
Definition
Disease hallmarked by elevated levels of uric acid in the blood stream. In this condition, crystals of monosodium urate (MSU) or uric acid are deposited on the articular cartilage of joints, tendons and surrounding tissues. It is marked by transient painful attacks of acute arthritis initiated by crystallization of urates within and about the joints and eventually leads to chronic gouty arthritis and the deposition of masses of urates in joints and other sites, creating tophi. It results from a combination of prolonged elevation of uric acid and overall acidity in the bloodstream.
Term
Tophus (plr. tophi)
Definition
A deposit of crystallised monosodium urate in people with longstanding hyperuricemia. It forms in the joints, cartilage, bones, and other places throughout the body. Sometimes, it breaks through the skin and appears as white or yellowish-white, chalky nodules.
Term
Hyperuricemia
Definition
Level of uric acid in the blood that is abnormally high.
Term
Cathartic
Definition
A substance that accelerates defecation
Term
Emetic
Definition
Substance that induces vomiting.
Term
Cell differentiation
Definition
Changes in physical and functional properties of cells as they proliferate in the embryo to form the different bodily structures and organs.
Term
Mesoderm
Definition
One of the three germ layers found in embryos of some animals that forms during gastrulation when some of the cell migrate inward to form the endoderm, produce an additional layer that lies between the endoderm and the ectoderm. It allows for the formation of bones, cartilage, most of the circulatory system, connective tissues, mesenchyme, mesothelium, muscles, peritoneum, reproductive system, spleen, and urinary system.
Term
Gastulation
Definition
Phase early in development of animal embryos during which the morphology of the embryo is dramatically restructured by cell migration (blastula to gastrula ). It is followed by organogenesis.
Term
Organogenesis
Definition
The process by which, during animal development, the ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm develop into the internal organs of the organsm.
Term
Ectoderm
Definition
The start of a tissue that covers body surfaces. It emerges first and forms from the outermost of the germ layers. It generally differentiates to form the nervous system, epidermis, and the outer part of integument.
Term
Endoderm
Definition
One of the germ layers formed during animal embryogenesis by the migration of cells inward along the archenteron from the inner layer of the the gastrula. It at first consists of flattened cells, which subsequently become columnar. It forms the epithelial lining of the whole of the digestive tube except part of the mouth, pharynx and the terminal part of the rectum (which are lined by involutions of the ectoderm), the lining cells of all the glands which open into the digestive tube, including those of the liver and pancreas, the epithelium of the auditory tube and tympanic cavity, of the trachea, bronchi, and alveoli of the lungs, of the urinary bladder and part of the urethra, and that which lines the follicles of the thyroid gland and thymus.
Term
Integumentary system
Definition
The organ system that protects the body from damage, comprising the skin and its appendages. It has a variety of functions; it may serve to waterproof, cushion and protect the deeper tissues, excrete wastes, regulate temperature and is the location of receptors for pain, sensation, pressure and temperature. In humans the integumentary system additionally provides vitamin D synthesis.
Term
Blastula/blastosphere
Definition
An early stage of embryonic development in animals produced by cleavage of a fertilized ovum and consists of a spherical layer of around 128 cells surrounding a central fluid-filled cavity called the blastocoel. It follows the morula and precedes the gastrula in the developmental sequence.
Term
Archenteron
Definition
The primitive gut that forms during gastrulation in the developing blastula. It develops ibto the digestive tract of an animal.
Term
Morula
Definition
An embry at an early stage of embryonic development consisting of cells (blastomeres) in a solid ball contained within the zona pellucida. It is produced by embryonic cleavage and after reaching the 16-cell stage, the cells differentiate. The inner blastomeres will become the inner cell mass and the blastomeres on the surface will later flatten to form the trophoblast. As this process begins, the blastomeres change their shape and tightly align themselves against each other to form a compact ball of cells. This is called compaction and is likely mediated by cell surface adhesion glycoproteins.
Term
Mesenchyme
Definition
An example of reticular connective tissue, a type of loose connective tissue, which is of mesodermal origin and located within the embryonic mesoderm. It is characterized morphologically by a prominent ground substance matrix containing a loose aggregate of reticular fibrils and unspecialized cells. The cells are capable of developing into connective tissue, bone, cartilage, the lymphatic system, and the circulatory system.
Term
Mesothelium
Definition
A membrane that forms the lining of several body cavities: the pleura (thoracal cavity), peritoneum (abdominal cavity including the mesentery) and pericardium (heart sac).
Term
Peritoneum
Definition
The serous membrane that forms the lining of the abdominal cavity or the coelom — it covers most of the intra-abdominal (or coelomic) organs. It is composed of a layer of mesothelium supported by a thin layer of connective tissue. It both supports the abdominal organs and serves as a conduit for their blood and lymph vessels and nerves.
Term
Embryogenesis
Definition
The process by which the embryo is formed and develops.
Term
Zone pellucida
Definition
A glycoprotein membrane surrounding the plasma membrane of an oocyte. It is a vital constitutive part of the latter, external but not extraneous to it.
Term
Embryonic cleavage
Definition
The division of cells in the early embryo.
Term
Trophoblasts
Definition
Cells forming the outer layer of blastocyst, which provide nutrients to the embryo and develop into a large part of the placenta. They are formed during the first stage of pregnancy and are first cells to differentiate from the fertilized egg.
Term
Ground substance
Definition
Non-cellular components of extracellular matrix containing the fibers.
Term
Reticular fibers / reticulin
Definition
Type of fiber in connective tissue composed of type III collagen that forms a fine meshwork that acts as a supporting mesh in soft tissues such as liver, bone marrow, and the tissues and organs of the lymphatic system.
Term
Serous membrane (serosa)
Definition
Smooth membrane consisting of a thin layer of cells which excrete serous fluid. These membranes line and enclose several body cavities, known as serous cavities, where they secrete a lubricating fluid which reduces friction from muscle movement.
Term
Serous fluids
Definition
Various body fluids that are typically pale yellow and transparent, and benign in nature, that fill the inside of body cavities.
Term
Tunica adventitia
Definition
The outermost connective tissue covering any organ, vessel, or other structure.
Term
Somites
Definition
In vertebrates in the embryo stage, masses of mesoderm distributed along two sides of the neural tube that will eventually become dermis, skeletal muscle, and vertebrae.
Term
Necrosis
Definition
The premature death of cells and living tussue caused by external factors such as infection, toxins, or trauma.
Term
Oncogene
Definition
A gene that, when mutated or expressed at high levels, helps turn a normal cell into a cancer cell.
Term
Angiogenesis
Definition
Physiological process involving the growth of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels.
Term
Vasculogenesis
Definition
The formation of new blood vessels when there no pre-existing ones.
Term
Intussusception
Definition
The process whereby a new blood vessel is created by the splitting of an existing blood vessel in two.
Supporting users have an ad free experience!