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| presented on items that are not usually expected to contain promotional messages. Examples might include advertisements included on train tickets. |
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| Introduced the concept of the Golden Mean, which posits that virtue lies between two opposite poles. Emphasis is placed on the actor, who must navigate between excess and deficiency. Aristotle suggested that in order for one to behave ethically, s/he must (1) know, through exercise of reasoning, what s/he is doing, (2) choose an action for its own sake in order to attain happiness, (3) reconcile the action with the nature of his/her firm and immutable character. |
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| Invented the world’s first practical, publicly demonstrated television set and the first fully electronic color television |
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| considered the father of public relations, a title that he earned by differentiating the discipline from advertising. Bernays discussed the symbiotic relationship that exists between journalists and public relations practitioners. The latter provide additional news in exchange for the audience provided by media sources. |
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The small number of conglomerates who produce films in Hollywood are pressured to create formulaic movies by a didactic, top-down process, and with the aim of earning profits in exchange for the large budgets with which the films are produced.
Artistic, mid-priced and independent projects are considered too risky. |
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| Categorical Imperative (Kant) |
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| Kant’s Categorical Imperative is a philosophically based ethical concept. One’s actions ought to be decided according to whether their adoption as universal law would serve society well. Action, or behavior, is considered more important than the actor. |
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| Is the largest cable operator, home Internet service provider, and the third largest home telephone provider in the United States. The company is an example of media conglomeration, or the ownership of media outlets (and the content they produce) by corporations that are publicly traded. |
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| an ideology that emphasizes the connection between the individual and the community. Focused on the outcome of individual ethical decisions, which are understood not as disconnected choices, but rather are analyzed by their impact, as part of the sum total of all actions, on society. |
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| A few publicly traded corporations own the vast majority of media sources and content, which further distances consumers from the executives of media corporations. |
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| refers to the process by which content disseminated by different media outlets is synthesized, which involves the employment of multiple platforms such as television and the Internet |
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| Culture is based on identity, or the characteristics and social meanings that are inherent in the self. The intersection of these concepts with media is important because (1) media messages contain representations or stereotypes that create meanings ascribed to and associated with cultural identities, (2) these messages are intended to cater to our identities through specific types of content and programming, and (3) they enable both the formation and the sustenance of our cultural identities. |
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| performed pioneering experiments, including some of the earliest transmission of voice and music through the radio. |
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| Includes restrictions on governmental power by protecting such freedoms as speech and the press—the latter of which is treated as an incubator of civilization in democratic society, and a means to cultivate an informed and participatory public. |
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| science fiction writer who coined the term “cyberspace” in reference to the world that exists inside computer networks. |
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| Invented the printing press, which effectively changed the controlled flow of information and expanded audiences to which messages are directed. |
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| built newspaper chains that became infamous for their use of “yellow journalism,” or content that was intended to be incendiary and elicit a strong reaction on the part of readerships along with Pulitzer. |
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| refers to the proliferation of product placement and other forms of advertising in contemporary societies. |
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| As a subfield of sociology, communication studies are inclusive of multifarious concepts, philosophies and theories related to ethics and ethical development. Of these, Kant is most often associated with Kohlberg’s three stages of morality, first in a more indirect sense and also by his contribution of a theory called the categorical imperative , which is component to the postconventional stage of moral development. |
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| founder of modern public relations, Lee was employed by Rockefeller as part of Standard Oil’s efforts to ameliorate the company’s public image pursuant to the famous expose written by Ida Tarbell. Lee advised Rockefeller to meet with miners and their families in order to generate positive publicity by posing for “photo ops.” |
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| assumes that human beings are rational, and that truth is discoverable by empirical and secular methods. As such, individuals must exercise political authority and supremacy over matters of the state, while government is expected to maintain peace domestically and internationally. |
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| invented the first wireless telegraph system in the late nineteenth century, which revolutionized communication |
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| introduced the concept known as the “marketplace of ideas,” which suggests that expression ought to be unencumbered by censorship in order that poor (or false) ideas are dismissed (in a process similar to that which occurs in capitalism respective to material goods), enabling the truth to prevail. |
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| introduced the theory of “hot” and “cold” media , the concept of the global village, and is noted for work related to technology and the mediums which media delivers messages. |
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| Refers to the education and training that enables one to decode, evaluate, analyze and produce media—with the eventual result that s/he is able to attain “critical autonomy in relationship to all media.” |
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| Introduced the theory of utilitarianism, which emphasizes the importance of actions and the consideration of their ethicality—the latter of which is determined by the outcome. |
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| “yellow journalism.” Muckrakers are so characterized by their tendency to (1) expose hidden situations, (2) locate an agent of control, (3) indicate a preferred action, respective to readers, and (4) incite an audience response. |
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| The second highest-earning media corporation, Newscorp is a diversified publicly traded American multinational conglomerate. |
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| Through his development of the Nipkow disc the German inventor’s work helped to bring about the first television broadcasts. |
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| Is a market in which markets and industries are dominated by a small number of producers. |
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| the study of the nature of being, existence or reality, and represents major branches of philosophical study. |
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| In such works as Common Sense, Paine espoused Enlightenment ideas about human rights that contributed to the ideologies that emerged during the American Revolution. |
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| The emergence of the “penny press” effectively changed the way that media was consumed. Benjamin Day lowered the price of the New York Sun to one cent, which was made possible by the selling of space for advertising, and readers thereafter did not purchase print media for its content—rather, advertisers purchased readers, and content served as “bait” for increasing readerships. |
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| postmodernism suggests that context is of the utmost importance, and that “truth” is a fallacious concept. As applied to journalism, facts no longer are considered component to objective realities, but rather yield diverse meanings within different contexts. |
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| Pragmatism couched, or expanded upon, postmodern conceptions of truth. Knowledge and reality are not fixed, and are the result of learning and the evolving stream of consciousness. |
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| Legally, conceptions of privacy are important to media. Distinctions between public figures and private citizens (and the nature of the coverage warranted by both respective statuses), along with processes of newsgathering and reporting, have collectively led to a bevy of legal rulings that pertain to privacy and the media. |
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| Owned a conglomeration of print media sources that competed with Hearst’s publishing empire during the nineteenth century. Pulitzer and his newspapers are also credited with muckraking journalistic practices. The prize that carries his surname was started by Pulitzer’s donations to New York City’s Columbia University. |
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| both a type of media and a kind of website that enables users and communities to create and share self-produced content. |
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| Social Responsibility Theory (Henry Luce) |
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| Social Responsibility Theory advocated the return to socially responsible media which, unburdened by financial constraints, could better serve active readerships. Luce delineated the functional responsibilities of media to (1) provide a truthful, comprehensive and intelligent account of the day’s events in a context that gives them meaning, (2) serve as a forum of exchange of comment and criticism, (3) provide a representative picture of constituent groups in society, (4) present and clarify society’s goals and values, and (5) provide citizens with full access to the day’s intelligence.Some argue that Social Responsibility Theory neglects to address the economic realities encountered by modern media |
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| The Japanese multinational conglomerate is one of the leading manufacturers of electronic products for consumer and professional markets. |
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| Publicly traded corporations are legally responsible for meeting the demands of shareholders. While this might theoretically necessitate abidance by ethical standards of conduct, increased share prices result in the development of a group that is exclusively composed of wealthy individuals to whom the company must be responsible. |
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| Technological Determinism |
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| a reductionist theory which posits that a society’s technological development effectively directs or facilitates changes to its social structures and cultural values. |
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| largest multinational media corporation and the second largest media and entertainment conglomerate. |
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| Veil of Ignorance (John Rawls) |
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| method of determining the morality of a certain issue (e.g., slavery) based upon the following thought experiment: parties to the original position know nothing about their particular abilities, tastes, and position within the social order of society. |
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| name of the world’s fourth largest multinational media conglomerate is a shortened form of “Visual and Audio Communications |
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| The controversy-mongering articles that were associated with newspapers owned by Pulitzer and Hearst represented what came to be known as “yellow journalism,” which was most often characterized by (1) bold editorials, and also the use of (2) flashy layouts and (3) bold illustrations or photographs. |
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| Invented the television transmitting and receptor system, for which he played a role in the early development of television. |
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| model by which systematic moral thinking is analyzed in one’s determination of proper action. Influenced by, among other theories, Kant’s categorical imperative, Rawls’ veil of ignorance, Aristotle’s golden mean, and Mill’s utilitarianism, the Potter Box is used in the study of communication ethics. The model is composed by drawing from the four steps by which Potter felt one ought to arrive at an ethical judgment: (1) Understanding the facts involved, (2) outlining the values inherent in a given decision, (3) applying relevant philosophical principles, and (4) articulating loyalties that are involved in communication (is the speaker/actor loyal to the public? To an employer?) |
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