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| a set of individuals that interact with each other and share some elements of identity |
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| outside of group-specific interactions people are connected into large social networks through webs of weaker social interactions |
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| a collection of individuals joining together to coordinate their interactions toward a specific purpose. - all governed by various social norms |
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the role that person plays in a social interaction is defined by his or her expected behavior in a particular situation
- An individual will play distinct roles in different groups of situations, depending on that person's status. |
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| social position, within the group, network, or organization |
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| express and detect emotion |
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| key to engaging in successful social interactions |
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| how an individual is perceived; humans modify their behaviors during interactions with others to affect this. |
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| the process of consciously making behavioral choices in order to create a specific impression in the minds of others |
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| one theory of impression management; proposes that impression management takes place in all aspects of human interaction. A person's behavior is an ongoing performance of self that changes according to the situation. This implies that the self is not a fixed unchangeable entity but formed and reformed through interactions with others |
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| encompasses the behavior that a player/person performs in front of an audience (society or a subset of society) |
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| employed when players are together but no audience is present. Still a region of performance but the players let go of conventions necessary for the front stage self. -behavior that would be unacceptable in when performed in front of an audience. |
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| the phenomenon where a group's members tend to think alike and agree for the sake of group harmony. - members may self-censor ideas or opinions that go against group norms or may be pressured by others to keep silent on such opinions. - leads to unanimous actions that leads group members to believe that since the group is unanimous (illusion) its decisions must be correct |
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| occurs when, through the interactions and discussions of the group, the attitude of the group as a whole toward a particular issue becomes stronger than the attitudes of the individual members. |
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| social influence exerted by one's peers to act in a way that is acceptable or similar to their own behaviors - powerful motivator and is connected to the desire for conformity and social acceptance. |
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| the tendency to perform better when a person knows he is being watched. - usually more pronounced for tasks at which the performer is highly practiced or skilled... if new or uncomfortable task, usually perform worse when being watched. |
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| where onlookers in a crowd fail to offer assistance to a person who is in trouble because they assume that someone else will help. When fewer people are present, it is more likely that any one person will help another in distress. |
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| occurs when members of a group decrease the pace or intensity of their own work with the intention of letting other group members work harder.= particularly common when not held accountable for own portion/contribution |
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| When people loose awareness of their individuality and instead immerse themselves in the mood or activities of a crowd. (sports, protests, mobs) Can do things that would go against individual moral principles because no longer feel responsible for own behavior. Take on mindset of the group. |
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| the process by which people learn customs and values of their culture |
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| the rules that community members are expected to follow |
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methods and interactions which contribute to the socialization of a developing individual. Comprised of the groups and people who influence personal attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.
Family, friends, neighbors, social institutions, mass media, environments that include interactions with other people (teams, work). - learn what behaviors are acceptable by observing and observing others reactions to their behaviors |
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| the tendency of individuals to change their attitudes, opinions, and behaviors to align with group norms. - Influence of one's peers and culture. |
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| behavioral changes made in response to a command by an authority figure. |
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| When a person is unable to recognize social norms or chooses not to follow them. Behavior that violates social expectations. |
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| a negative social label that changes a person's social identity by classifying the labeled person as abnormal or tainted in some respect. Along with ostracism is a form of escalated social punishment- tools used to keep members within the confines of acceptable behavior. |
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| The process by which an individual or group becomes a part of a new culture |
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| a culture that is share by a smaller group of people who are also part of a large culture but have specific cultural attributes that set them apart from the larger group. (skateboarders, Amish, deaf community). |
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| the practice of valuing and respecting difference in culture. Includes the belief that the harmonious coexistence of separate cultures is a valuable goal. |
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| the belief that one's group is of central importance and includes the tendency to judge the practices of other groups by one's own cultural standards. |
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| the practice of trying to understand a culture on its own terms and to judge a culture by its own standards. |
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| a group with which an individual shares identity and toward which she feels loyalty |
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| a group with which an individual does not identify and toward which she may feel competition or hostility. |
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| the establishment of mental divisions and comparisons between in-group and out-group can lead to bias, where the individual favors the in-group and devalues the out-group. |
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| strict generalizations about other groups or categories of people. Often underlies antagonistic feelings of conflict. Many processes contribute to it. Ideas and attitudes. primarily founded on the us and them mentality that helps form group identity. |
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| organizing patterns of thought that are used to categorize and interpret info, thus shaping individual attitudes and perspectives |
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| type of shema closely associated with prejudice. A concept about a group or category of people that includes the belief that all members of that group share certain characteristics. Positive, negative, or neutral. - such generalizations lead to misjudgment, misunderstanding, and conflict |
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| the anxiety and resulting impaired performance that a person may experience when confronted with a negative stereotype about a group to which he belongs or when he feels his performance may confirm a negative stereotype about his group. Can cause stereotypes to become self-fulfilling prophecies |
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| Self-fulfilling prophecies |
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Definition
| where the stress and lowered expectations accompanying negative stereotypes contribute to making stereotypical beliefs into realizty. |
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| unfair treatment of others based on their membership in a specific social group; actions and behaviors. Influenced by biological, social, and cultural factors and is a learned behavior that can be passed down through generations. |
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| Individual discrimination |
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Definition
| when one person behaves negatively toard another because of that person's membership in a specific social group or category. |
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| Institutional discrimination |
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| takes place a the level of social institutions when they employ policies that differentiate between people based on social groupings. |
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| the collection of lasting characteristics that make a person unique. |
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personality consists of a set of traits, which are characteristics that vary between people and are stable over the lifetime regardless of environment factors - traits allow for variation in degree; continuous variable
-quantifiable comparison;
OCEAN: openness to experience; conscientiousness; extraversion; agreeableness; and Neuroticism |
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| focuses on biological contributions to certain traits. It assumes that a person's genome contributes to the formation of personality, and that personality traits differ in the extent to which they are influenced by heredity versus environmental factors. |
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| infants are thought to start life with this innate, genetically influenced baseline of personality that includes the infants tendency towards certain patterns of emotion and social interactions; temperament is then modified by environmental influences throughout life. |
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| pioneered by Sigmund Freud, proposes a universal personality structure that contributes both to behavior and to differences between people - focuses on the internal processes that shape personality and translate personality traits into behaviors. - think subconscious |
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| most primitive part of personality, which seeks instant gratification with no consideration for morality or social norms. Present from birth and motivated by the desire to achieve immediate gratification and avoid pain |
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| later in life through internalization of society's rules for moral behavior; learned primarily through interactions with caregivers. |
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| part of the personality that is forced to direct behavior in a way that balances the demand of the id and superego. |
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| personality is constructed by a series of learning experiences that occur through interactions between the individual and their environment. personality IS behavior. Experiences lead to predictable behaviors which make up personality. -black box |
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| Individuals are able to actively participate in the formation of their own personalities. Focuses on learning experiences and observable behaviors. Considers the contributions of an individual's mental life and personal choices. Personal factors, behavior, environment. (reciprocal causation; James and Jones) |
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| people learn from the experiences of others and apply the lesson of previous experiences to new situations. |
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| people continually seek experiences that make them better, more fulfilled individuals. The role of the individual in shaping his or her own personality. Conscious decisions. |
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| Situational approach to explaining behavior. |
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| challenge to trait based theories. Shifts focus from internal, stable traits to external chaning circumstances. Still has stability because people have a stable patterns of interpretation to chaning circumstnaces and stituations |
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Term
trait theory
biological
psychoanalytical
social cognitive
humanistic |
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Definition
stable traits, little control
genetically influenced, little control
id, ego, and superego, little control
learned reactions to situations, little control
interaction between personal and environmental factors, some control by choosing experiences
seeking betterment of self, free will control |
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| A person's view of who they are in terms of both internal factors, including personality traits, and social or external factors like group membership- perception of self |
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| most personal aspect; the knowledge of oneself as a person separate from other people and constant throughout changing situations. A person's view of his or her own personality. -Act in ways to uphold it and emotional response to circumstances that threaten its validity |
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| The perception of oneself as a member of certain social groups. cognitive and emotional component |
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| Different types of identities |
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Definition
| race/ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, and class. Used to understand society as a whole and also have personal and social meaning as different aspects of an individual's identity. |
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| Influence of culture and socialization |
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a critical factor in identity development. People are shaped by surround environment.
-Culture is guiding force of socialization |
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| smallest unit of socialization. Family and parents. |
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| children do this with behaviors they observe. Part of identity formation because it allows the child to view himself as similar to the imitated person (gender identity) and allows role taking |
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| adopting the role of another person, by imitating behaviors associated with specific roles or by taking the other person's point of view in a social interaction - use and understand symbols |
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| a group that provides one with a model for appropriate actions, values, and worldview. In-group. Identity-reference group interplay |
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| Levels of Social influences on identity formation |
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| identity --> individual interactions --> reference group --> socialization --> culture |
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| a person's overall value judgment of himself (high self esteem = + self concept) |
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| the feeling of being able to carry out an action successfully; more specific than self esteem. (chosen experiences and performance) |
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| a person's belief about the extent internal or external factors play a role in shaping his or her life. (similar to self esteem and self efficacy and interacts with them to influeecne self concept and self identity |
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| Freud's theory of developmental stages |
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Definition
Oral: first year
Anal: 2nd year
Phallic: 3-6 gender and sexual identification
Latent: 7-12 Social development
Genital: Adolescence and older, mature sexuality |
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Definition
psychosocial psychoanalytic:
Stage 1: trust vs mistrust
2: autonomy vs. Shame and doubt- competent to carry out self care
3: initiative vs guilt- execute a plan in play and activities
4: Industry vs. Inferiority- School, ability to master skills that are societally values
5: Identity vs. Role confusion
6: intimacy vs. isolation-emotionally significant relationships
7: generativity vs. stagnation
8: integrity vs despair |
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| The development of a child can be defined in terms of the child's current and potential levels of achievement. see photo. emphasizes socialization and learning experiences. |
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| Kohlberg's theory of moral development |
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Definition
Level I: Preconventional Morality
Stage 1: punishment
Stage 2: Reward
Level II: Conventional Morality
Stage 1: social disapproval
Stage 2: Rule Following
Level III: Post Convention Morality
Stage 5: Social contract
Stage 6: Universal ethics |
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Definition
The causes people use to explain the observed behaviors of others.
Conclusions drawn about the causes for other's people's behavior influence the subsequent behavioral response. - Conscious and unconscious processes |
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| Dispositional attribution |
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Definition
| Assigning the cause to an inherent quality or desire. Internal factors |
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| environmental forces; external factors outside of control |
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| Fundamental attribution error |
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Definition
| the tendency to automatically favor dispositional attributions over situational ones when judging other people... dispositional attributions require less time, info, and attention |
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Definition
| the tendency to attribute ones own success to internal factors while attributing one's failures to external environmental factors. |
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| How culture affects attributions |
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Definition
| different cultural patterns of thought influence/ affect the process of attribution |
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Definition
| sets of psychological abnormalities that are maladaptive to the individual. |
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| Somatic symptom and related disorders |
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Definition
| characterized by bodily symptoms such as pain, fatigue, and motor problems, along with associated psychological symptoms that cause significant problems for the individual. -Psychological impairment that accompanies bodily symptoms. -experiences at forefront |
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| the experience of unwarranted fear and physiological tension, and behaviors associated with the emotional and physical experience of anxiety... excessive SNS activation in the absence of an immediate threat |
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Definition
| two extremes or poles along the spectrum of emotional experience. depression versus mania. |
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| Depressive disorders; depression |
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Definition
| pervasive feelings of sadness and hopelessness and or the loss of interest in activities that an individual usually enjoys... biological basis of depression deficiency in monoamines serotonin, epinephrine, and norepinephrine.) |
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Definition
| is characterized by impaired connection with reality. Hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized speech. Negative and positive symptoms |
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| Biological basis of schizophrenia |
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Definition
| genetics, excess dopamine, brain atrophy |
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| the experience of dissociation: a split between different aspects of psychological functioning. |
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| are defied by their tendency to endue across different situations and over the course of a lifetime. The development of personality traits that cause psychological and social dysfunction.- Adolescence. |
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Definition
Anxiety: 18%
Mood: 9.5%
Schizophrenia: 1%
Personality: 9% |
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| a wide range of internal activities such as analyzing information, generating ideas, and problem solving. |
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| a wide range of internal activities such as analyzing information, generating ideas, and problem solving. |
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| a physiological factor that provides a directional force or reason for behavior |
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| motivation often originates from these which can by physiological or psychological |
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| a biological innate tendency to perfrom a certain behavior that leads to the fulfillment of a need. |
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| another factor in the development of motivation, physiological and psychological tension. |
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urges to perform certain behaviors in order to resolve physiological arousal when that arousal is caused by the biological needs of the organism.
ex; thirst. often used to maintain homeostasis |
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| for feedback systems remember the body/hormones want to correct whats wrong, they don't create it. |
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| describes internal drives as the impetus for motivation. people are motivated to take action in order to lessen the state of arousal caused by a physiological need. -innate biological drives |
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| focuses on external rewards. people are motivated by external rewards. highlights the physiological feeling of pleasure that comes with receiving an incentive. -Enjoys receiving a paycheck so goes to work |
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Definition
people behave based on their expectations. Behave in ways that they predict will yield the most favorable outcome.
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation |
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Definition
| propose that people are motivated by the desire to fulfill unmet needs. Maslow: people strive to meet a hierarchy of needs in ascending order |
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| Maslow's Hierarchy of needs |
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Definition
1. psychological: food, water, sex, air
2. safety: physical and emotional security
3. belongingess: family, friends, coworkers
4. Esteem: approval and recognition
5. Self-actualization: education, hobbies, religion, personal growth |
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Definition
| are favorable or unfavorable organizations of beliefs and feelings about people, objects, or situations |
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| Affective component of attitude |
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Definition
| a person's feelings or emotions about an object, person, or event |
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| behavioral component of attitude |
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Definition
| the influence that attitudes have on behavior |
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Definition
| beliefs or knowledge about a specific object of interest |
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| Foot-in-the-door phenomenon |
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Definition
| based on the premise that people are much more like to agree to a large request if they first agree to a smaller one. |
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Definition
| behavior can shape attitudes through role playing. |
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Definition
| refers to conflict or inconsistency between internal attitudes and external behaviors |
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Term
| cognitive dissonance theory |
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Definition
| people have an inherent desire to avoid the internal discomfort associated with a mismatch between attitudes and behaviors, To resolve cognitive dissonance, people either change their attitudes towards a situation, change their perception of the behavior, or modify the behavior. |
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| Elaboration likelihood model |
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Definition
| theory of attitude and behavior change. Takes an information processing approach to persuasion, describing the interaction between an argument and relevant psychological factors of the person who receives the argument. |
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| Peripheral rout processing |
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Definition
| occurs when an individual does not think deeply to evaluate the argument. Happens when unwilling or unable to evaluate the situation fully or uses heuristic method of problem solving. |
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Definition
| occurs when an individual does think deeply and even elaborates on the argument that is presented. Appeals to logic and reason, and is influenced by both the argument itself and the credibility of the source |
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Definition
| approaches behavior change from a social learning perspective, in contrast to the intentional persuasion described by elaboration likelihood model, and proposes that behavior and attitudes change through a system of reciprocal causation in which personal factors such as cognition affect and biology, behavior, and environmental factors all influence each other |
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| Factors affecting attitude change |
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Definition
| behavior change, characteristics of the message, characteristics of the target, social factors. |
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Definition
| Me lol... the strain that is experienced when an organism's equilibrium is disrupted and it must adapt. |
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Definition
| MCAT... the source of stress. Can range from daily hassles like traffic to major personal events and cataclysmic events such as natural disasters or war. |
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Definition
| personal interpretations of the situations that triggered stress which can account for the differences in how people experience and manage stress. |
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Definition
people make two appraisals which determine their overall emotional reaction
1. primary appraisal: evaluation for potential threat... if threat is present then
2. secondary appraisal: assessing personal ability to cope with the threat |
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| Physiological fight or flight response |
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Definition
| caused by an acute stressor... SNS releases epinephrine and norepinephrine... long term: cortisol. |
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| along with exercise can facilitate stress relief by allowing people to achieve a sense of purpose, focus, and optimism. |
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