Term
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Definition
| how parts become different at different times, locations, structures; answers the "why?" question |
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Term
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Definition
| building the body, answers the "how?" question |
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Term
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Definition
| regions of embryo become spatially organized to produce different structures |
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Term
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Definition
| used to study development; move cells around to see what happpens |
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Term
| Organism used the the "Organizer" |
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Definition
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Term
| Dorsal Lip of the Blastopore |
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Definition
| essential spot of development in salamander embryos; site of differentiation |
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Term
| What happens when you split a salamander egg in half before blastopore formation? |
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Definition
| Each half forms a normal embryo |
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Term
| What happens when you split a salamander egg in half after blastopore formation? |
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Definition
| Only one embryo develops (the half with the blastopore) |
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Term
| What happens when you add a second dorsal lip of the blastopore to a salamander egg? |
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Definition
| Two sites of differentiation develop; two salamanders attached to each other develop |
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Term
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Definition
| use special dyes on regions of egg to track what they turn into |
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Term
| Conditional Specification |
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Definition
| cell will not differentiate normally if moved to another location; dependent upon environment |
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Term
| What happens when a sea urchin 4-cell mass is split into 4? Why? |
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Definition
| each one develops into small larvae; due to conditional specification |
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Term
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Definition
| Cell will differentiate normally if moved to another location; independent from environment |
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Term
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Definition
| cell can give rise to any tissue |
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Term
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Definition
| cells have already predetermined development; lots of autonomous specification |
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Term
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Definition
| bits of cytoplasm of fertilized egg that affect differentiation |
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Term
| How to show sufficiency of a group of cells |
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Definition
| add group of cells to embryo |
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Term
| How to show necessity of a group of cells |
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Definition
| remove group of cells to see if differentiation pattern is lost |
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Term
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Definition
| all cells contain the same genes |
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Term
| Evidence for genomic equivalence |
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Definition
| nuclear transfer of frog nuclei of various cell types; earlier nuclei are more effective |
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Term
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Definition
| sites of active replication |
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Term
| Cells used to clone Dolly |
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Definition
| udder cells arrested at G1 stage |
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Term
| How cells were fused to clone Dolly |
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Definition
| fused nucleus and egg with electricity |
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Term
| Health problems with Dolly |
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Definition
premature arthritis
shorter telomeres |
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Term
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Definition
| methylation (imprinting) isn't reset on nuclear DNA |
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Term
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Definition
| metabolic and respiratory problems; embryo dies due to problems with methylation |
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Term
| Legislation on human cloning |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
species conservation
cloning of extinct organisms
therapies |
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Term
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Definition
| used to make another organism |
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Term
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Definition
| used to isolate genetically matched embryonic stem cells used for therapies |
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Term
| Status of cloning in primates |
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Definition
rhesus macaque cloning
have achieved therapeutic cloning primates |
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Term
| Why is therapeutic cloning better than embryonic stem cells? |
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Definition
| because therapeutic cloning involves using cells that are genetically identical to patient |
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Term
| How to produce allophenic mice |
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Definition
extract cells and select for specific ones
expose to critical genes and convert to stem cells
place cells in blastocyst and implant
give rise to allophenic mouse with mosaic-like expression of genes |
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Term
| A type of chimeric mouse that isn't allophenic |
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Definition
| mice with nuclear DNA of one organism and mitochondrial DNA of another |
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Term
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Definition
| when cells of embryo attach to each other and form tight junctions |
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Term
| Two basic cell types of early mammalian embryos |
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Definition
inner cell mass
trophoblast |
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Term
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Definition
| cells at middle of blastocyst that give rise to |
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Term
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Definition
outer layer
becomes part of placenta and provides nutrients |
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Term
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Definition
has inner cell mass and outer trophoblast
along with fluid filled cavity (blastocoele) |
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Term
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Definition
| cells can give rise to anything except trophoblast |
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Term
| How to produce embryonic stem cells |
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Definition
| extract inner mass cells from early embryos |
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Term
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Definition
| cell that can differentiate into different types of cells |
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Term
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Definition
| addition of Yamanaka factors that cause normal cells to become pluripotent |
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Term
| How to induce pluripotency |
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Definition
add Yamanaka factors that cells absorb
those that absorb all four are converted to stem cells
kill of cells that aren't converted |
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Term
| How to assess pluripotency |
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Definition
| inject pluripotent cells into mice and analyze the tumor (teratoma) that develops |
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Term
| How iPS cells differ from ES cells |
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Definition
| different methylation patterns |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| change already differentiated cells into another type using various transcription factors |
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Term
| Real-world example of transdifferentiation |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| used to detect time and location in tissue of expression of mRNA; complementary RNA/DNA probe binds to tissue |
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Term
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Definition
| detect proteins by attaching primary antibody and then secondary antibody with a marker |
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Term
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Definition
put foreign DNA into embryonic stem cells
Select for homologous recombinants through double-drug selection
insert cells into host |
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Term
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Definition
put foreign DNA into embryonic stem cells
Select for homologous recombinants through double-drug selection
insert cells into host
breed chimeric mice to get homozygotes with both copies of gene knocked out |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| double-strand RNA that inactivates gene of interest |
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Term
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Definition
| block the formation of mRNA |
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Term
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Definition
| adhesive recognition site that attaches to another recognition site from cadherin of another cell |
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Term
| Ion that cadherins depend on |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| proteins that anchor cadherins in the cell |
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Term
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Definition
| epidermal cells to outside; mesodermal cells to middle; endodermal cells to center |
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Term
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Definition
provides structural support
involved in cell-cell interactions
located at base of epithelia cells |
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Term
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Definition
proteoglycan molecule
collagen fiber
fibronectin/laminin
microfilaments
integrins |
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Term
|
Definition
made of protein and glycosaminoglycans
space-filling
swell when in water |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Three types of cytoskeleton systems |
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Definition
| microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments |
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Term
| Drugs that depolymerize microtubules |
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Definition
| nocodazole, culchicines, coclemid |
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Term
| Drugs that stabilize microtubules |
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Definition
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Term
| Microtubule-based motor proteins |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| sliding movement for cilia and flagella movement |
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Term
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Definition
| walk along microtubules to carry various cell parts |
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Term
| Cytoskeletal system involved in cell migration |
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Definition
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Term
| Drugs that depolymerize microfilaments |
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Definition
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Term
| Drugs that stabilize microfilaments |
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Definition
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Term
| Microfilament-based motor protein |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
generates muscle contraction by walking along actin fibers
produces force for cell division |
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Term
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Definition
| actin projection on edge of cell that propels cell across substrate during cell migration |
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Term
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Definition
| spikes at bases of lamellipodia |
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Term
| Basic cell signal transduction |
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Definition
ligand binds to receptor
causes structural change that is transmitted through membrane
alters cytoplasmic domains to activate kinase
kinase uses ATP to phosphorylate tyrosine
eventually activates transcription factor in nucleus |
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Term
| IP3 effect on endoplasmic reticulum |
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Definition
| binds to ligand-gated ion channel allowing for release of Ca2+ ions |
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Term
| Effects of calcium ions on signal transduction |
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Definition
| activate proteins that cause cell response |
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Term
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Definition
| synthetic calcium that can be used to induce cell processes thought to be dependent upon calcium |
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Term
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Definition
| cause cell division and differentiation |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
receptor tyrosin kinase receptor activated
alters adapter attached to GEF
this activates RAS G-protein to RAS GFP
This converts Rat-->Mek
causes phosphorylation of Erk
Activates TF that alters gene expression |
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Term
| Nuclear proteins involved in Ras |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
TGF-beta attaches to serine/threonine kinase
this phosphorylates SMAD that then forms complex with coSMAD
complex enters nucleus to alter transcription |
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Term
| TGF-Beta Nuclear proteins |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Cannonical pathway of Wnt |
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Definition
binding of Wnt ligand to Frizzled activates Dsh
Dsh inhibits destruction complex
allows for activation of beta-catenin
this activates TCF/LEF and alters gene expression |
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Term
| Nuclear proteins involved in Wnt |
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Definition
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Term
| Planar Cell Polarity of Wnt |
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Definition
binding of ligand to receptor activates Dsh that alters cytoskeletal dynamics
this directs cell migration during development |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
Hedgehog ligand binds to patched receptor
inhibits the inhibitory effects of patched and smoothened
leads to phosphorylation of Ci
Ci alters expression |
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Term
| What are the goals of meiosis? |
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Definition
to create genetic diversity
to form haploid gametes used in production of offspring |
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Term
| Products of meiosis in spermatogonia |
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Definition
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Term
| Products of meiosis in oogonia |
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Definition
| 1 haploid oocyte and 3 polar bodies |
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Term
| Structure of mammalian seminiferous tubule |
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Definition
where spermatogenesis occurs
epithelium consists of alternating sertoli and spermatogenic cells |
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Term
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Definition
| differentiate to form spermatids |
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Term
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Definition
| provide nutrients to spermatids |
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Term
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Definition
inner core of flagellum of sperm
supports and allows for bending of flagellum
consists of 9 doublets of microtubules surrounding 2 inner doublets |
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Term
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Definition
cap-like at head of sperm made from golgi body
contains enzymes that break down zona pellucida (or vitelline envelope in sea urchins) |
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Term
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Definition
| where mitochondria are stored in sperm |
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Term
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Definition
| whip structure used for movement of sperm |
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Term
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Definition
contains developing follicles
contains corpus luteum left over from released oocyte |
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Term
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Definition
surrounded by cumulus (for protection)
Underneath is zona pellucida that initiates acrosome reaction
nucleus is beneath these layers and a membrane |
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Term
| Where is progesterone released from? |
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Definition
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Term
| What does progesterone do? |
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Definition
| prepares uterus for implantation by thickening uterine lining |
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Term
| What happens when levels of progesterone drop? |
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Definition
| uterine lining is shed (menstruation) |
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Term
| Where is estrogen produced? |
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Definition
| by follicles, corpus luteum, placenta |
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Term
|
Definition
can stimulate/inhibit anterior pituitary gland
secreted by follicle to increase layering in uterus |
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Term
| Where is Follicle-Stimulating Hormone released? |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
stimulates ovulation
stimulates oocyte maturation |
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Term
| Where is Leutinizing hormone released? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
stimulates ovulation
triggers formation and maintenance of corpus luteum
triggers follicle growth |
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Term
| Where is Gonadotropin releasing hormone released? |
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Definition
| from hypothalamus to anterior pituitary |
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Term
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Definition
| triggers release of FSH and LH |
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Term
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Definition
left over from release of oocyte from ovary
secretes progesterone and estrogen to maintain uterine lining |
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Term
| What happens to corpus luteum if no fertilization occurs? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| When do sea urchin eggs arrest? |
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Definition
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Term
| When do most mammalian and amphibian eggs arrest? |
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Definition
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Term
| Where is Human Chorionic Gonadotropin hormone produced? |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| promotes maintenance of corpus luteum that produces progesterone to maintain embryo implantation |
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Term
| How does the birth control pill prevent pregnancy? |
|
Definition
| prevents ovulation by suppressing release of gonadotropins |
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Term
| How does RU486/mifepristone stop pregnancy? |
|
Definition
drug is similar to progesterone
binds to progesterone receptor, but doesn't do anything
causes embryo to be expelled as uterine lining breaks down due to lack of progesterone |
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Term
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Definition
| makes cell remain at metaphase by inhibiting anaphase promoting complex |
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Term
| What is the active state of Maturation Promoting Factor (MPF)? |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| drill hole into oocyte so sperm can enter |
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Term
| Sperm synthesis using stem cells |
|
Definition
| produce germ cells from stem cells and reinject into testes to make healthy sperm |
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Term
|
Definition
| chemoattractant for sea urchin sperm |
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Term
| Where sperm maturation occurs |
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Definition
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|
Term
| Where does capacitation occur? |
|
Definition
| in female reproductive tract |
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Term
|
Definition
destabilization of acrosomal head and membrane for better binding between sperm and oocyte
makes it more permeable to calcium, which increases motility |
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Term
|
Definition
| acrosome fuses with jelly layer to expose contents for digestion of zona pellucida causing calcium influx causing signal cascade |
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Term
| Trigger of acrosome reaction in sea urchins |
|
Definition
| acrosome comes into contact with vitelline envelope |
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Term
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Definition
| protein released by acrosomal process that allows for species specific recognition between egg and sperm |
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Term
| Scientific support for the fact that bindin helps with species-specific interactions |
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Definition
| egg agglutination only occurs between eggs of same species when bindin from same species is introduced |
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Term
| Trigger of cortical granule exocytosis (sea urchins) |
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Definition
| sperm interacts with vitelline envelope |
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Term
| Contents of cortical granule |
|
Definition
proteases that lift vitelline envelope
peroxidases that harden vitelline envelope |
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Term
| Involvement of proteoglycans in lfting vitelline envelope |
|
Definition
| swell when they hit water to help lift envelope |
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Term
| Fast block to polyspermy (sea urchins) |
|
Definition
| membrane depolarizes preventing sperm entry |
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Term
| Why fast block cannot be permanent |
|
Definition
| depolarization for prolonged time will kill cell |
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Term
| Slow block to polyspermy (sea urchins) |
|
Definition
| formation of vitelline envelope |
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|
Term
| Slow block to polyspermy in mammals |
|
Definition
| cortical reaction that modifies zona pellucida to digest sperm receptors ZP2 and ZP3 |
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Term
|
Definition
| activation of metabolism, meiosis, DNA syntehsis |
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Term
| Transduction that leads to increase in calcium (sea urchins) |
|
Definition
sperm binding activates Src
Src activates phospholipase C-gamma
phospholipase C-gamma and phospholipase C-beta cleave PIP2 to make IP3
IP3 and DAG cause calcium influx
calcium increases release of more calcium ions
this causes a wave-like event |
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Term
| pH change that activates egg |
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Definition
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|
Term
| Effect of increasing pH on egg activation |
|
Definition
| slightly increases uptake of amino acids |
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Term
| effect of decreasing pH and increasing Ca2+ on egg activation |
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Definition
| lots more uptake of amino acids |
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|
Term
| Why is protein synthesis needed right away after fertilization, but mRNAs aren't? |
|
Definition
| embryos receive maternal mRNA to use for a while |
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|
Term
| Amino acid uptake in eggs |
|
Definition
high in fertilized eggs
low in unfertilized eggs |
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Term
|
Definition
| movement of female and male pronuclei towards each other |
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|
Term
| Molecular motor and cytoskeletal system involved in pronuclear migration |
|
Definition
| dynein causes sliding of microtubules emanating from male pronucleus |
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Term
|
Definition
| centrosome of sperm with branching microtubules that are used for pulling female pronucleus towards male pronucleus |
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|
Term
| Intracytoplasmic sperm injection |
|
Definition
| inject sperm directly into oocyte |
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Term
| Pathenogenetic activation |
|
Definition
activate unfertilized egg with electric current to induce division to form blastocyst
can then harvest inner mass cells |
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Term
|
Definition
| stimulates Na/H exchanger that increases pH; necessary to increase macromolecular synthesis |
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