Term
| another name for GI tract |
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Definition
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Term
| sections of the small intestine |
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Definition
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Term
| sections of the large intestine |
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Definition
| ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon |
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Term
|
Definition
| moth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, large intestines, rectum, and anus |
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Term
| accessory organs of the digestive system |
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Definition
| salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, and many other small glands that secrete mucus |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| How are foods broken down in the mouth? |
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Definition
Carbs -> polysaccharides (starch), glycogen, and disaccharides (sucrose or lactose)
Proteins -> amino acids
Fats -> monoglycerides and free fatty acis |
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Term
| Into what two systems is food absorbed? |
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Definition
| Either the circulatory system (from the mouth directly to the vena cava) or the lymphatic system (the hepatic portal vein) |
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Term
| layers of the tunica mucosa |
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Definition
| epithelial layer, lamina propria, and muscularis mucosa |
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Term
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Definition
| Layer of the tunica mucosa touching the lumen that acts as the protective layer. This layer is very mitotically active, and in some places it is modified for absorption or secretion. Contains both exocrine and endocrine cells. |
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Term
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Definition
| middle layer of the tunica mucosa. Contains connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerve fibers. Contains GALT (Gut Associated Lymphatic Tissue), which is important in protecting the body b/c it contains lots of immune cells. |
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Term
| What is significant about the number of immune system cells in the lamina propria? |
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Definition
| There are as many immune system cells in the lamina propria as there are in the rest of the body combined. |
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Term
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Definition
| Smooth muscle layer that is the 3rd layer of the tunica mucosa. |
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Term
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Definition
2nd layer underneath the tunica mucosa.
a thick layer of connective tissue, blood vessels, lymphatic tissue, and nerve fibers.
contains the submucosal plexus. |
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Term
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Definition
3rd tunica layer.
Is a double layer of smooth muscle (except in the mouth, pharynx, and external anal sphincter that are composed of skeletal muscle).
One layer of smooth muscle is an inner circular layer extending around the entire tract and the other layer is an outer longitudinal layer.
It also contains the myenteric plexus. |
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Term
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Definition
4th tunica layer that is a connective tissue layer.
It is continuous with the mesentery and suspends organs in the abdominal cavity. |
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Term
| interstitial cells of Cajul |
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Definition
| cells that are responsible for automaticity of smooth muscle in the gut. These initiate activity of slow oscillations that get the RMP close to threshold but do not actually cause an AP. |
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Term
| intrinsic nerve plexus (aka enteric nerve plexus) |
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Definition
network of nerve tissue within the gut.
contains the myenteric plexus and the submucosal plexus. |
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Term
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Definition
located in the tunica muscularis.
regulate muscle movement in the gut |
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Term
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Definition
located in the tunica submucosa.
controls blood flow and secretions in the gut. |
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Term
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Definition
Nerves of the ANS originating outside the GI tract that innervate the GI tract.
Includes parasympathetic nerves (increase motility and secretions) and sympathetic nerves (decrease motility and secretions) |
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Term
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Definition
| Hormones are released b/c of changes in the GI tract |
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Term
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Definition
| More dentition to break up their food more. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Parotid, Submandibular, and Sublingual |
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Term
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Definition
Salivary amylase. Enzyme in the saliva that helps digest food.
Breaks long polysaccharides down into shorter chains. |
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Term
| Functions of the saliva in the mouth: |
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Definition
| Digestion, lubrication of food, solvent, and oral hygiene |
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Term
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Definition
| a protein located in saliva that adds with water to form mucus. Mucus then lubricates food |
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Term
| the mechanism of saliva in oral hygiene |
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Definition
| Saliva contains enzymes and immunoglobulins that lyse bacteria. |
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Term
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Definition
Condition diagnosed by lack of saliva production.
Causes dry mouth and little absorption of food in the mouth. |
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Term
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Definition
Administered sublingually b/c of trouble with a patient's coronary circulation.
This allows the compound to drain directly to the vena cava, rather than going first to the hepatic portal vein in the liver. |
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Term
|
Definition
| oral phase, pharyngeal phase, and esophageal phase |
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Term
|
Definition
| Food moved by the pharynx |
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Term
|
Definition
| food moves from the pharynx to the esophagus (across the larynx) |
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Term
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Definition
food is propelled into the esophagus.
the first of peristaltic waves occurs. |
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Term
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Definition
| the opening through which the esophagus passes from the thoracic cavity into the disphragm of the abdominal cavity. |
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Term
|
Definition
| occurs when the diaphragm does not tightly surround the esophageal hiatus. A small tear inhibits digestion |
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Term
| pharyngoesophageal sphincter (aka upper esophageal sphincter) |
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Definition
| sphincter holding the opening between the esophagus and the atmosphere closed. It stays closed most of the time b/c the pressure w/i the esophagus is different from atm. If it opened more, the esophagus would have to contract like the lungs. |
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Term
| gastroesophageal sphincter |
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Definition
| sphincter at the lower end of the esophagus. Remains closed most of the time to prevent gastric reflux. |
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Term
|
Definition
the condition that occurs if the gastroesophageal sphincter does not relax when a person swallows.
This allows food to accumulate in the esophagus and can lead to aspiration pneumonia. |
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Term
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Definition
| when food accumulates in the esophagus and begins to rot, allowing rotting food to pass to the lungs and cause pneumonia. |
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Term
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Definition
| countercurrent of blood in the testes that keeps blood entering the testes cool |
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Term
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Definition
| is like a varicose vein in the testes that shuts down the pampiniform plexus. The testes overheats and, if not fixed, leads to sterility. |
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Term
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Definition
failure of the testes to descend.
usually only occurs in premature babies |
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Term
|
Definition
| breast development in males b/c of taking synthetic testosterone |
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Term
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Definition
dihydrotestosterone.
Exposure causes fetal genitalia to develop as a male |
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Term
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Definition
where sperm are stored and mature.
(Sperm taken from the seminiferous tubules are infertile.) |
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Term
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Definition
leads away from the epididymis.
the target of vasectomies. |
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Term
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Definition
contributes 60% of semen volume.
Adds fructose, prostaglandins, and fibrinogen to the semen. |
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Term
| the purpose of fibrinogen in semen |
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Definition
| Fibrinogen allows clots to form once semen is in the vagina in order to keep it IN the vagina |
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Term
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Definition
located where urethra comes out of bladder.
Produces a thin, milky, alkaline secretion to protect sperm in the acidic environment of the vagina. |
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Term
| benign prostatic hyperplasia |
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Definition
| enlargement of the prostate that almost strangles the urethra. |
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Term
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Definition
| a parasympathetic function in the male/female |
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Term
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Definition
sympathetic function in the male.
Contraction of the epididymis, vas deferens, prostate, and other glands. |
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Term
| sympathetic sexual response in females |
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Definition
| contraction of pelvic musculature |
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Term
| initial surge of testosterone in the fetus |
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Definition
| Occurs between 8 and 18 weeks gestation. After birth, testosterone levels in the neonate are low. |
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Term
| 2nd surge of testosterone in baby |
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Definition
| 2 to 3 months after parturition. Reason is unknown. |
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Term
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Definition
| men in their 80s fathering children |
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Term
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Definition
a gene that codes for the protein 'testicular determining factor.'
This causes the testes to develop along male lines |
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Term
| cause of gonadal sex differentiation in males |
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Definition
| Activation of the SRY Region that leads to formation of the testes. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| External genitalia of fetus |
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Definition
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Term
| Reproductive Tract development of fetus |
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Definition
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Term
| What determines male external genitalia |
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Definition
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Term
| How is initially DHT formed? |
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Definition
| Testosterone production from the fetal testes is stimulated by HCG. Testosterone is then converted by 5 alpha-reductase into dihydrotestosterone (DHT). |
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Term
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Definition
excess production of androgens.
In adult women, this causes voice deepening and hair growth.
In embryonic females, this causes male genitalia.
In adult males, there is not rxn.
In young boys, they can enter into precocious puberty. |
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Term
| androgen insensitivity syndrome |
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Definition
androgen receptors are insensitive.
In an XY embryo, there is no Wolfian development, no Mullerian development (b/c anti-Mullerian hormone is still produced), and female genitalia. |
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Term
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Definition
| acyclic. The development of this acyclic brain is caused by estrogen. |
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Term
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Definition
| cyclic. This occurs b/c female brains have alpha-fetal protein. this binds and ties up estrogens that would cause the brain to develop a-cyclically. |
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Term
| primary sex characteristics of androgens |
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Definition
| enhance spermatogenesis, cause growth/development of reproductive tract, maintenance of reproductive tract in adults, and possibly responsible for libido |
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Term
| secondary sex characteristics of androgens |
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Definition
| body hair, baldness, enlarged larynx, deeper voice, thickening of skin, increased secretions of sebaceous glands onto skin, stimulate bone growth, stimulate closure of epiphyseal plates, increase protein synthesis, inc erythropoiesis, inc BMR, inc LDL's, inc synthesis of androgen-binding protein, and favors fat deposition. |
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Term
| What does testosterone inhibit? |
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Definition
| both gonadotrophs in the anterior pituitary and the hypothalamus |
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Term
| what does inhibin inhibit? |
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Definition
| only FSH-secreting cells in the anterior pituitary |
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Term
| What does castration cause? |
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Definition
| No inhibin OR sperm to be released |
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Term
| what causes onset of puberty? |
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Definition
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Term
| Who has lower FSH and LH levels-- young guy or older man? |
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Definition
| The young guy has lower FSH/LH levels b/c the older man has decreased sensitivity to them. B/c his sensitivity is lower, the feedback loop is somewhat inhibited, and more are produced. |
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Term
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Definition
| foreign estrogens that pollute our environment |
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Term
| Signs of feminization of males: |
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Definition
since 1950...
declined sperm count, decreased semen volume, inc incidence of testicular cancer, inc reproductive tract abnormalities, inc cryptorchidism and hypospadia, inc incidence of breast cancer, and gender bending. |
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Term
| phases of the ovarian cycle |
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Definition
Follicular phase (1-14)
Luteal phase (15-28) |
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Term
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Definition
| the period of bleeding in lower mammals. The release of blood is a sign of the need to mate. |
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Term
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Definition
the first menstrual period.
Starts around 9-15 yo and continues till menopause. |
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Term
| 2 structural areas of the ovaries |
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Definition
| cortex (outer) and ova (inner) |
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Term
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Definition
| outer layer of the uterus |
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Term
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Definition
middle muscular layer of the uterus.
important in parturition |
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Term
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Definition
| inner layer of uterus that is sloughed off |
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Term
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Definition
a passageway for menstrual flow, childbirth, and sperm.
it is lined with mucus-secreting cells. |
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Term
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Definition
| inner layer of uterus that is sloughed off |
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Term
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Definition
a passageway for menstrual flow, childbirth, and sperm.
it is lined with mucus-secreting cells. |
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Term
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Definition
| tissue that forms a border around the opening of the vagina and partially covers the orifice. |
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Term
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Definition
| collective term for the female external genitalia |
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Term
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Definition
"pubic mound." Mound of adipose tissue sitting on top of pubic symphysis.
Has 2 longitudinal folds of skin extending from it. |
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Term
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Definition
| hymen, vaginal orifice, external urethral orifice, and openings from several mucus producing glands. |
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Term
| maturation inhibiting factor |
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Definition
| this freezes oocytes in their primary oocyte stage after the primordial germ cells have undergone the first prophase of meiotic division. |
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Term
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Definition
| process that reduces the number of primordial follicles available for reproduction |
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Term
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Definition
| follicles that never develop |
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Term
| how many follicles will ovulate? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| zona pellucida and granulosa cells are present |
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Term
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Definition
| thecal layer becomes present, and the antrum forms. |
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Term
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Definition
| cavity of the follicle that is filled with estrogens, electrolytes, and plasminogen |
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Term
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Definition
| develops theca internal and theca external |
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Term
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Definition
| a mature follicle that has granulosa cells, theca internal, theca external |
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Term
| what hormone causes ovulation? how? |
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Definition
a surge of LH causes ovulation.
The LH surge causes release of plasminogen activating factor that causes creation of plasmin, which causes the follicle to burst and release the ovum. |
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Term
| What signals the end of the follicular phase? |
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Definition
| When the follicle ruptures, the follicular phase ends, and the luteal phase begins |
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Term
| where do the initial pregnancy hormones come from? |
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Definition
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Term
| what happens to the corpus luteum if no pregnancy occurs? |
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Definition
| the corpus luteum becomes the corpus albicans |
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Term
| what are the phases of the endometrial cycle? |
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Definition
| the menstrual phase, the proliferative phase, and the secretory phase |
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Term
| what is another name for the proliferative phase? |
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Definition
| this is aka the estrogen-demand phase |
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Term
| what is another name for the secretory phase? |
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Definition
| aka progesterone-demand phase |
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Term
| phases of the breast cycle |
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Definition
follicular phase (estrogen dependent)
progesterone phase |
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Term
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Definition
| the most significant estrogen in non-pregnant women |
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Term
| primary sex characteristics of estrogen |
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Definition
| growth and maintenance of female reproductive tract, inc vaginal thickness to protect it during sex, endometrium proliferation, inc myometrium excitability, inc oviduct motility, deposition of fat in breasts, ductile system of breasts, thinning of cervical mucus, and formation of LH receptors on the granulosa cells |
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Term
| secondary sex characteristics of estrogen |
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Definition
| affects the skeletal system, influences muscle, inc fat deposition at the thighs and hips, softening and vascularization of skin, inc in HDL's with a dec in LDL's, inc production of clotting factors, and possibly a role in libido |
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Term
| functions of progesterone |
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Definition
| progressivly inc secretory capacity of the endometrium , causes myometrium to be less active, responsible for lobules and alveoli developing in the breast, thickening of cervical mucus, dec Na+ retention, and inc in body temperature |
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Term
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Definition
inhibit ovulation.
contains both estrogen and progesterone.
FSH/LH stay low so that normal follicular development does not occur. |
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Term
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Definition
| synthetic progesterone implant placed in the arm of a patient |
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Term
| diaphragm, cervical cap, vaginal pouch, contraceptive sponges |
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Definition
| devices inserted in the vagina to act as birth control |
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Term
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Definition
| progesterone-only pill that thickens the cervical mucus to prevent sperm penetration |
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Term
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Definition
| active ingredient in most spermacides |
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Term
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Definition
form of birth control
vasectomy (men)
tubuligation |
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Term
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Definition
| cut and tie the vas deferens surgically, which creates semen without sperm |
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Term
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Definition
| tie off the oviducts surgically so that the ova cannot meet the sperm in the oviducts |
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Term
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Definition
intra uterine device.
Copper is inserted into the uterus by a physician while the cervix is dilated; this disturbs the uterine environment.
There are problems w/pregnancies and bleeding and moral issues b/c IUDs prevent implantation (NOT fertilization). |
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Term
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Definition
High dose of estrogen used to increase motility of the oviducts and uterus, which hastens the transport of the zygote through the reproductive tract.
Prevents implantation. |
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Term
RU 486
(aka mifepristone) |
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Definition
| a progesterone antagonist that increases motility of the uterus and displaces the fetus before implantation (day 8). |
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Term
| prostaglandins as birth control |
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Definition
| increase motility and used to prevent implantation |
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Term
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Definition
has failure rate of 20-30%.
Avoiding sex during ovulation but not very successful b/c ovulation times vary. |
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Term
Estradiol
(Estrase)
(Climara) |
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Definition
pharmacological estrogen.
Prescribed mostly for menopausal women to prevent menopause symptoms, prevent osteoporosis, and are synthetic. |
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Term
conjugated estrogens
(Premarin) |
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Definition
| naturally occurring estrogen from pregnant mares |
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Term
Progestin
(Provera)
(Cycrin) |
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Definition
synthetic progesterone.
given for abdominal bleeding during cycles |
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Term
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Definition
combination of estrogen and progesterone.
may be used to treat prostate cancer in males.
estrogen alone increases endometrial carcinoma, which dec if progesterone is added. |
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Term
| what day does the corpus luteum become the corpus albicans? |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
HCG maintains the corpus luteum and tells it to keep producing estrogen and progesterone.
In a male fetus, HCG tells the fetal testes to produce androgens. |
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Term
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Definition
| most important estrogen in pregnant females |
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Term
| special functions of estriol |
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Definition
| enlargement of external genitalia and uterus, enlargement of the breasts, growth of the ductile system in breasts, relaxation of pubic ligaments. |
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Term
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Definition
| decidual cells produce nutrients for zygote, tells fetus to produce cortisol and aldosterone, dec myometrial activity, inhibits oxytocin sensitivity, dec prostaglandin activity, dev of alveolar pouches in breast, thickens cervical plug, and stimulates maternal respiratory center. |
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Term
| HCS (human chorionic somatomammotropin) |
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Definition
aka Human Placental Lactogen.
produced by the placenta to assess growth of fetus |
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Term
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Definition
| prepares breasts for lactation and stimulates mammary glands, increases fetal somatomedins (IGFs), decreases insulin sensitivity of the mother. |
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Term
| What causes gestational diabetes? |
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Definition
| the presence of HCS/ Human Placental Lactogen may induce diabetes b/c it makes the mother less sensitive to insulin |
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Term
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Definition
| produced by the corpus luteum and then by the decidual cells of the endometrium |
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Term
|
Definition
causes relaxation of the pelvic floor, causes softening of the cervix, reduces the myometrial contractions.
(Prepares the pelvis and cervix for parturition.) |
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Term
|
Definition
| in sheep, fetal pituitary releases ACTH, which causes production of cortisol from adrenal glands. This inc estrogen synthesis and prostaglandins in mother. |
|
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Term
| functions of cortisol in the fetus |
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Definition
| assists in lung maturation, closes the ductus arteriosus (shunt b/t the pulmonary artery and the aorta), and assists in dev of intestinal transport mechanism. |
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Term
| Braxton-Hicks contractions |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
gland-like structure that produces milk.
Stimulated by prolactin to produce milk. |
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Term
| structures of an alveolus |
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Definition
| secretory epithelial layer and a myoepithelial layer |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Why is milk only produced after birth? |
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Definition
| Prolactin is inhibited by estrogen and progesterone being released from the placenta. Once the placenta is out of the body, prolactin is no longer inhibited. |
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Term
| what is the role of HCS (HPL) in milk production? |
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Definition
| HCS/HPL is similar to prolactin but not as effective. It increases the density of prolactin receptors. |
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Term
|
Definition
the first milk.
low in fat and lactose than true milk but contains immunoglobulins. |
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Term
|
Definition
the first milk.
low in fat and lactose than true milk but contains immunoglobulins. |
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|
Term
| why do nurses bring the baby to nurse soon after birth, even if milk is not being released yet? |
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Definition
| the suckling baby causes the mother to release oxytocin, which causes the myometrium to contract down and start restoring the size of the uterus. |
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Term
|
Definition
athletic menstruation irregularity.
when female athletes have irregular menstrual periods. |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| no ovulation but still have a cycle |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| functional endometrial tissue where it does not belong |
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|
Term
| retro-grade menstrual theory |
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Definition
| during menstruation, some flow goes back to oviducts and carries endometrial tissue that begins functioning |
|
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Term
| embryogenic implantation theory |
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Definition
| undeveloped endometrial tissue gets misplaced during embryogenic development |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| tissue gets in the lymphatic or circulatory system and is transported elsewhere. This is much like cancer metastasis. |
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Term
|
Definition
treatment for endometriosis.
synthesized androgens that suppress GnRH, FSH, and LH to prevent a normal cycle from occurring.
Side effects are menopause or facial hair. |
|
|
Term
| treatment for dysmenorrhea |
|
Definition
prostaglandin inhibitors or NSAIDs.
Aspirin, Motrin, Neprasin. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| present in postmenopausal women b/c of the lack of estrogen in their bodies. Estrogen normally promotes bone density, but w/o it, bones become porous and brittle. |
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Term
|
Definition
drug that stimulates estrogen receptor on bone that has an estrogen-like effect of bones.
osteoporosis drug. |
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Term
|
Definition
inhibits bone reabsorption (inhibits osteoclastic activity).
osteoporosis drug |
|
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Term
|
Definition
salmon calcitonin that is administered as a nasal spray.
in non-physiological doses, his works to decrease Ca2+ reabsorption from bone. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| cells of the exocrine pancreas that produce pancreatic juices and bicarbonate |
|
|
Term
| primary and secondary pancreatic ducts |
|
Definition
| where pancreatic enzymes and bicarbonate are secreted into the duodenum of the small intestine. |
|
|
Term
| Do all people have a secondary duct? |
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Definition
| Not all. All people have a primary duct but not necessarily a secondary pancreatic duct. |
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Term
|
Definition
| hormone secreted by mucosal cells due to the presence of acid chyme in the small intestines |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| acidic mixture from the stomach |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| released because of amino acids and small peptides in the small intestine |
|
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Term
|
Definition
islet cells of the pancreas that have endocrine function.
alpha, beta, delta, and F-cells |
|
|
Term
| which develops first, acini cells or islet cells? |
|
Definition
| islet cells (endocrine cells) develop first |
|
|
Term
| what do alpha cells produce? |
|
Definition
| alpha cells produce glucagon |
|
|
Term
| what do beta cells produce? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what do delta cells produce? |
|
Definition
| somatostatin and a little bit of gastrin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what did Von Mering and Minkowski do? |
|
Definition
| produced diabetic dogs by taking out their pancreases |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ligated the pancreatic duct in dogs to see if it would have a diabetic effect, but it didn't b/c the duct is exocrine. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the factors affecting insulin secretion? |
|
Definition
| elevated plasma glucose, elevated plasma amino acids, GI hormones, neural regulation by ANS, and somatostatin |
|
|
Term
| what is the biphasic response of insulin? |
|
Definition
| insulin responds to elevated glucose by immediately releasing a surge of insulin but then declines while new insulin is made |
|
|
Term
| what particular amino acids are important in stimulating insulin? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Glucagon-Like Peptide 1
Secreted in response to food in the gut.
Causes inc in insulin and dec in GI motility |
|
|
Term
| what does gastric inhibiting peptide do? |
|
Definition
| increases insulin secretion and dec GI motility |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Beta oxidation is the metabolic process that breaks complex fatty acids down into simpler forms |
|
|
Term
| how does somatostatin affect insulin? |
|
Definition
| somatostatin inhibits both hGH and insulin production |
|
|
Term
| what action does insulin have on carbohydrate metabolism? |
|
Definition
inc glucose uptake into cells by causing release of hexokinase IV, which phosphorylates already stored glucose.
Also stimulates glycogenesis in liver and skeletal muscles, inhibits glycogenolysis, inhibits gluconeogensis. |
|
|
Term
| What is lipoprotein lipase? |
|
Definition
| an enzyme that is in fat cells that breaks down triglycerides into free fatty acids and glycerol for storage and energy. It works OUTSIDE the cell. |
|
|
Term
| insulin effect on fat metabolism? |
|
Definition
| breaks down fat by lipase and has it exported OR has it broken down by lipoprotein lipase and has it imported |
|
|
Term
| insulin effect on protein metabolism? |
|
Definition
insulin acts like hGH but dec plasma glucose.
Enhances ribosomal protein synthesis, enhances active transport of amino acids into the cell, and decreases protein catabolism. |
|
|
Term
| what is insulin's effect on neuropeptide Y? |
|
Definition
| dec activity of neuropeptide Y |
|
|
Term
| function of neuropeptide Y |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| antagonist to insulin. Major site of action is the liver |
|
|
Term
| glucagon effect on carbs? |
|
Definition
| increases glycogenolysis and increases gluconeogenesis |
|
|
Term
| glucagon influence on fat metabolism? |
|
Definition
| increases lipolysis and Beta-oxidation |
|
|
Term
| glucagon influence on proteins? |
|
Definition
| increase uptake of gluconeogenic precursors to liver to make glucose |
|
|
Term
| stimulatory regulators of glucagon? |
|
Definition
| dec glucose, inc amino acids, sympathetic nervous system stimulation |
|
|
Term
| inhibitory regulators of glucagon? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| dec gut motility, dec secretions by gut, inhibits glucagon and insulin secretion, acts as a brake on the GI tract |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Produced by the F cells of the endocrine pancreas.
Stimulated by ingestion of a protein rich meal, hypoglycemia, or exercise.
Inhibits the gallbladder and exocrine pancreas. |
|
|
Term
| What type of diabetes do most people have? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
hormones that regulate metabolic rate and body weight.
Include leptin, adiponectin, and resistin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| protein secreted by adipose tissue that is associated with obesity and supposedly increases insulin resistance |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
protein hormone that modulates metabolic processes.
It is secreted only by adipose tissue. When there are lower levels, people are usually obese and have decreased insulin sensitivity. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
hormone with a central role in fat metabolism.
Greater fat stores cause more leptin to be produced. Leptin lets the brain know there is fat present to inhibit Neuropeptide Y (hunger) and stimulate melanocortins (that inhibit appetite). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
located in the hypothalamus.
produces neuropeptide Y and melanocortins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hyperglycemia, diuresis (polyurea), polydipsia, polyphagia, ketoacidosis, hyperlipidemia |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hungry all the time but food and energy is not used |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fat broken down into ketones |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
nerve damage.
Can be caused by diabetes. Possibly due to osmotic damage to Schwann cells (b/c of high extracellular glucose levels) that leads to loss of feeling in the extremities. |
|
|
Term
| nephropathies (kidney failure) |
|
Definition
| b/c of diabetes, capillaries in the glomerulus thicken, interfering with filtration. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| b/c of diabetes, thickening of capillary membrane that leads to poor circulation and necrosis of tissue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| b/c of diabetes, atherosclerosis in the renal artery and hypertension. Inc risk of CVD. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| b/c of diabetes, microcirculation which leads to retinas. This impaired blood flow causes microaneurysms in the eyes that may burst. |
|
|
Term
| diabetic-induced impotence |
|
Definition
| microcirculation is damaged |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| b/c of diabetes, diabetics have inc risk of cataracts |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| test for measuring glycosylated Hb |
|
|
Term
| how does Hb become glycosylated? |
|
Definition
| occurs when too much sugar is present and attaches to Hb. This glycosylated Hb is called Hb A. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| drug that is useful in diabetic patients with exposure to some endogenous insulin. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a sulfonylurea drug that inc insulin secretions from the pancreas and inc density of insulin receptors on the target tissue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| drug for type II diabetics that dec hepatic output of glucose, which keeps the liver from mobilizing glucose, and dec the intestinal absorption of glucose. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| type II diabetic drug that increases insulin sensitivity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| type I diabetic drug that is injected. Insulin lispro |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| human insulin that is inhaled |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| diabetic drug that mimics Incretins, which are hormones that dec plasma glucose like insulin, GLP-1, and Gastric Inhibitory Peptide. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| used to block enzyme activity that oxidizes iodide in thyroid |
|
|
Term
| Why would T4 be a prohormone? |
|
Definition
| B/c it ultimately converts to T3 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| block iodide trapping and reduce T3 and T4 levels |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a drug for seizure disorders that dec the binding of thyroxine to plasma proteins so that more thyroxine is free in the plasma |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| drug (Aspirin) that dec binding of thyroxine to plasma proteins and causes there to be more free thyroxine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| collective term for hypothyroidism in children |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pathology of the thyroid gland itself |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| TRH or TSH related deficiency |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| unusual edema caused by accumulation of mucopolysaccharides in the interstitial spaces |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
treatment for hypothyroidism.
thyroxine preparations |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| eyes bug out b/c of hyperthyroidism |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| radioactive isotope that is picked up by the thyroid and stored |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
autoimmune disorder that leads to hyperthyroidism.
Body produces TSI (thyroid stimulating immunoglobulin) instead of TSH, and TSI can't be shut off. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cells in the parathyroid gland that produce PTH |
|
|
Term
| In what 2 ways does PTH inc calcium levels? |
|
Definition
inc the activity of the osteoclasts that break down bone and enhances reabsorption of calcium in the DCT.
(PTH also enhances Vitamin D synthesis) |
|
|
Term
| what stimulates PTH secretion? |
|
Definition
| low plasma calcium levels |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
low calcium levels. Possibly due to damage during thyroid surgery.
Symptoms are tetany, progressive hyperexcitability, tingly fingers, and cardiac arrhythmias. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| test for hypocalcemia performed by tapping on the jaw. If there is too little Ca2+, trigeminal nerve causes twitching. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| use of a blood pressure cuff to test for hypocalcemia. Positive response is shown by inflation of the cuff causing hang to contract |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| could be due to a parathyroid tumor |
|
|
Term
| symptoms of hypercalcemia |
|
Definition
| hypoexcitability, depressed CNS, muscle function, and kidney stones |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| lack of Vitamin D in children, especially those that live in areas with prolonged winters. Lack of Vitamin D causes the body to take Ca2+ from the bones, which causes bending. |
|
|
Term
| osteomalacia (adult rickets) |
|
Definition
| as ppl get older they cannot absorb Vitamin D as well. Low calcium levels result |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| comprises 80% of the adrenal gland. Has 3 sections |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
outer portion of the adrenal cortex.
produces aldosterone and other mineralcorticoids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
middle and largest section of the adrenal cortex.
Produces glucocorticoids, mostly cortisol, but also estrogen and androgens. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
innermost region of the adrenal cortex.
secretes mostly cortisol w/some estrogen and androgens. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| dehydroepiandrosterone. Responsible for hair on axillary and pubic regions of females. |
|
|
Term
| functions of mineralcorticoids |
|
Definition
| promote reabsorption of Na+ and secretion of K+ in DCT |
|
|
Term
Primary hyperaldosteronism
(Conn's syndrome) |
|
Definition
| usually caused by an aldosterone-secreting tumor |
|
|
Term
| secondary hyperaldosteronism |
|
Definition
| due to the renin angiotensin system. atherosclerosis in the renal artery leads to low GFR, which signals the release of renin and aldosterone. |
|
|
Term
| metabolic effects of glucocorticoids |
|
Definition
| gluconeogenesis and inc plasma glucose levels |
|
|
Term
| glucocorticoid effect on fat metabolism |
|
Definition
| lipolysis, unusual fat distribution, and anti-insulin effect |
|
|
Term
| what is cortisol's influence on the fetus? |
|
Definition
| production of surfactant and maturation of GI enzymes |
|
|
Term
| cortisol effect on stress? |
|
Definition
G.A.S. (general adaptation syndrome)
stress causes inc glucocorticoid levels, which are strongly gluconeogenic |
|
|
Term
hypersecretion
(Cushing's syndrome) |
|
Definition
hypersecretion of cortisol.
happens b/c of too much ACTH, adrenal tumor, or ACTH-producing tumor.
Causes proteolysis, moon face, and buffalo hump. |
|
|
Term
Primary adrenal cortical insufficiency
(Addison's disease) |
|
Definition
autoimmune disease that destroys part of the adrenal cortex.
JFK had it! :)
causes darkening of the skin.
Loss of aldosterone is dangerous. |
|
|
Term
| secondary adrenal cortical insufficiency |
|
Definition
too little ACTH.
problem is with the gland itself.
These ppl respond to stress poorly and may be hypoglycemic. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| class of compounds to which arachidonic acid belongs |
|
|
Term
| are prostaglandins hormones? |
|
Definition
| no!!! they are produced and work locally. they release paracrine and autocrine secretions, and they effects are short-lived. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| classes of prostaglandins |
|
|
Term
| functions of prostaglandins in the reproductive system |
|
Definition
| sperm transport, ovulation, menstruation, parturition |
|
|
Term
| prostaglandin function in the respiratory system |
|
Definition
| bronchodilators or bronchoconstrictors |
|
|
Term
| prostaglandin influence on the nervous system |
|
Definition
| aids thermal regulation in the hypothalamus |
|
|
Term
| prostaglandin influence on the immune system |
|
Definition
| inc inflammation response |
|
|
Term
| drugs that inhibit prostaglandin synthesis |
|
Definition
| Aspirin or ibuprofren work as NSAIDs that inhibit prostaglandin synthesis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cardia, body (aka corpus), and antrum |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fusion of the mucosa and submucosa tunics |
|
|
Term
| Does the cardia have any acid-secreting cells? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Are you gonna make it through this test? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| will the sun still come up on Friday? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| will you still go to medical school? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how much gastric juice does the stomach produce everyday? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what produces the gastric juice? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 areas of the gastric mucosa |
|
Definition
| oxyntic mucosa and pyloric gland area |
|
|
Term
| 3 types of cells within the gastric pits |
|
Definition
| parietal cells, mucous neck cells, and chief cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| these produce HCl and intrinsic factor |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| precursor to pepsin, formed in the chief cells of the mucous membrane of the stomach and converted to pepsin by hydrochloric acid during digestion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
located between the gastric pits.
produce a thick, viscous mucous, which gives the stomach an alkaline coating |
|
|
Term
| how often are the linings of the stomach and small intestines replaced? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
present in the antrum of the stomach.
Cells secrete primarily mucous, a little pepsinogen, but NO HCl. Some gastrin and somatostatin are also produced. |
|
|
Term
| Why shouldn't ppl w/Gastritis take anti-inflammatory drugs? |
|
Definition
| mucous is prostaglandin-dependent. If anti-inflammatory meds are used, prostaglandins will blocked, and mucus can't be produced. |
|
|
Term
| what is the purpose of HCl? |
|
Definition
| HCl converts pepsinogen to pepsin, which then can break down proteins. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
digestive enzyme that acts as a proteolytic enzyme. It has to be activated from a precursor, or it would kill the cell that makes it.
It initiates protein digestion but does not break proteins down all the way to amino acids. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| essential for Vitamin B12 absorption |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
first phase of digestion.
Smell of food sends vagal impulses to the stomach to inc motility and gastric juice secretion.
The anticipatory phase. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 2nd phase of gastric secretion, which is when mechanical stretching of the gut causes an inc gastric motility, inc HCl secretion, and inc pepsinogen secretion. Gastrin is released from epithelial cell and causes an inc in HCl and pepsinogen secretion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
gastrin binds to histamine receptors to signal the cell to secrete HCl and pepsinogen.
For a patient w/ulcers, the histamine receptors are blocked. |
|
|
Term
| Tagament, Zantac, Cybetamine |
|
Definition
| used to block Histamine receptors and lower HCl secretions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| stimulate Gastrin release |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| histamines tell parietal cells to produce HCl |
|
|
Term
| Where is most alcohol absorbed? |
|
Definition
| in the small intestine, if not in the stomach |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
3rd phase of gastric secretion.
The restraining phase. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Peristaltic contraction of the small intestine induced by the entrance of food into the stomach. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A hormone released by the upper intestinal mucosa that inhibits gastric motility and secretion. |
|
|
Term
| what do plasma levels of alcohol depend upon? |
|
Definition
| amount of alcohol consumed, rate of absorption, and rate of conversion to acetaldehyde |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| enzyme in high concentration in the stomach that converts alcohol to acetaldehyde |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| portion of the small intestine where secretions from the pancreatic duct and gallbladder enter. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| large folds in the wall of the duodenum that increase surface area |
|
|
Term
| villi of the plica circularis |
|
Definition
| fingerlike projections that project to the surface |
|
|
Term
| cells on the villi of the plica circularis |
|
Definition
| mucous producing cells, epithelial cells |
|
|
Term
| epithelial cells of the villi |
|
Definition
| these contain microvilli, which are the "intestinal fuzz." Each epithelial cell may have up to 6,000 microvilli |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| enzyme that breaks down proteins within the microvilli |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| enzymes within the microvilli that break down disaccharides to monosaccharides |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| enzymes within the microvilli that break short chain amino acids down to individual amino acids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| leads to hepatic portal vein |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| active areas between adjacent villi where cells are "birthed" |
|
|
Term
| why do ppl undergoing chemo/radiation experience GI problems? |
|
Definition
| b/c cancer drugs target mitotically active cells, which is very similar to the GI cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| capillaries for the lymphatic system within the intestine |
|
|
Term
| 2 pancreatic exocrine secretions released into the duodenum |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| protease that is converted to trypsin by enteropeptidase |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| protease converted to chymotripsin via trypsin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| protease converted to carboxypeptidase by trypsin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| break fats down into MAG's and free fatty acids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| break polysaccharides down into disaccharides |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the liver produces bile salts for fat digestion |
|
|
Term
| regulation of pancreatic secretions |
|
Definition
Secretin is signaled by the presence of chyme, bile salts, and lipids to tell the pancreas to release bicarbonate-rich secretion.
Cholecystokinin is signaled by lipids, vagal impulses, and peptones to tell pancreas to release enzymes |
|
|
Term
| regulation of liver secretion |
|
Definition
| cholecystokinin tells liver to release bile salts |
|
|
Term
| using what transport system is anything reabsorbed in the gut? |
|
Definition
| using sodium co-transport |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pouch where the small intestine meets the large intestine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
is huge b/c it is used to get energy out of their poop.
(Rabbits are coprophagic) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when an organism eats its poop to get energy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when appendix becomes impacted with feces, which can lead to appendicitis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| located at the end of the descending colon |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the longitudinal muscle of the large intestine.
remains partially contracted. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pockets in the colon that help propel contents to the rectum |
|
|
Term
| functions of large intestine |
|
Definition
| absorption of water, Vitamin K synthesis, foodstuffs and energy absorption by some of the flora, and movement of contents toward the rectum |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| movements of the colon that cause slow shuffling of food toward the rectum |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| marked increase in the contraction of the colon toward the rectum. Presence of food in the stomach causes movement of food into the colon. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the mucosal barrier is affected |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| more common than gastric ulcers |
|
|
Term
| Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome |
|
Definition
| tumor in the pancreas. results in large amounts of gastrin secretion, which causes HCl secretion by the parietal cells. pH of the duodenum plummets. Gastric lipases do not work well, and ppl end up with a lot of fat in their stool |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| autoimmune disorder that affects the large intestine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| inflammation of the small intestine, usually the ileum |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| inflammation of the colon. Can be treated with glucocorticoids to settle the immune system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| small herniation of the colon that occurs mostly in older adults. treated with antibiotics. pt's are told to avoid nuts or seeds. Much like appendicitis but pain is on the wrong side. |
|
|
Term
aluminum hydroxide
(Amphogel) |
|
Definition
| ulcer treatment that neutralizes the acid in the stomach |
|
|
Term
MgOH plus A1OH
(Maalox, Mylanta) |
|
Definition
| ulcer treatment that neutralizes acid in the stomach |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| histamine blockers that dec secretions of HCl |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
ulcer coater that puts coating on inside of the stomach and mucus there.
now available OTC |
|
|
Term
Prilosec (Nexium)
Prevacid
Protonix |
|
Definition
ulcer treatments that block hydrogen secretion.
also treats ppl with GURD or heartburn |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| anti-vomiting medicine that prevents nausea |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an antihistamine that prevents nausea |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| antihistamine that is taken for motion sickness |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| anticholinergic/ M-blocker for sea sickness; patch worn behind ear |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
drugs that work central medullary.
often used with anticancer drugs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cause vomiting; give to patients who have ingested poison |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| antidiarrheals that contain an astringent that modifies the internal flora in some way. Mechanism is poorly understood and are NOT endorsed by the FDA. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
contains opium
effective anti-diarrheal but heavily regulated b/c it is very addictive |
|
|
Term
| synthetic opiates (Lomotil, Imodium) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Laxatives that alter osmotic pressure by reaching the colon and changing osmotic pressure to increase it and keep water in the colon |
|
|
