Term
|
Definition
| The affect non target species, target species grow resistance and more applications are the required. adverse effects include poisoning of humans and livestock, reduction of natural pest enemies, reduced pollination due to poisoning of bees, loss of crops and trees and fishery and wildlife losses. totaling about 650 million per year. |
|
|
Term
| Chlorinated Organics pesticides |
|
Definition
| rather stable, tend to accumulate in lipid tissues. tend to be associated with bio-magnification and food chain transfer problems. Can be carcinogenic. Tend to affet insect's nervous system. |
|
|
Term
| organophosphorous pesticides |
|
Definition
| Are highly toxic to humans and responsible for most of the pesticide poisonings throughout the world. Usually cost more than chlorinated organics. |
|
|
Term
| Reasons for pesticide use |
|
Definition
| public health, agriculture production and forestry management. |
|
|
Term
| chlorinated hydrocarbons and fish |
|
Definition
| fish and shellfish are extremely sensitive to them. interferes with O2 uptake in gills and can cause suffocation. |
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Term
|
Definition
| spraying on the inside of walls to kill mosquito which carry the parasite. Can be replaced by malathion which is less persistent, good for environment but this means more applications are needed and thus it's more costly! mosquitoes also get good at developing resistance to DDT. |
|
|
Term
| Agriculture expansion after WWII |
|
Definition
| In response to the greater availability of these pesticides from previous war efforts and due to the green revolution and attempts to increase world's food supply. |
|
|
Term
| Crop losses to pests before and after major pesticide use |
|
Definition
| before in 1942 and 1952 losses were about 31%. Afterwards in 1974 and 1986 losses were about 33% and 37%. This has suggested to many people that heavy use of pesticides may not be the most effective way to control crop losses to pests. |
|
|
Term
| Pesticide threat to humans |
|
Definition
| consumption of contaminated crops or fish and leaching into groundwater supplies. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| decline in juvenile sea trout in the laguna madre appears to have been caused by hurricane damage, not DDT. DDT levels does not depress photosynthetic rates at natural solubility limits and plankton concentrations. DDT is probably not carcinogenic to humans. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| desirable for pest control and costs but very undesirable for affects on nontarget species. If the dissolved level of the pesticide is low it may be perceived as non persistent when it has actually accumulated on plankton and other living organisms making it very persistent. |
|
|
Term
| Food chain magnification controversy |
|
Definition
| It is possible that higher tropic level organisms simply accumulate more DDT residues from the environment than do organisms further down the food chain. |
|
|
Term
| Reproductive failure in birds of prey |
|
Definition
| Caused by chlorinated organics. Results in 1) thinning of eggshells and breakage of laid eggs. 2) modification in parent behavior include delayed breeding, improper incubation and failure to make up for lost clutches. 3) high mortality of embryos and fledglings due to elevated pesticide levels. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| DDE is a stable metabolite of DDT formed after DDT is released to the environment. It's levels have a significant negative correlation with eggshell thickness. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Polychlorinated biphenyls. Though not pesticides they are very similar to chlorinated hydrocarbons. Used in the use from 1926 to 1977. Have a variety of industrial applications. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Very persistent. reduce reproductive success. accumulate in lipid tissues. elevated exposure may cause health affects for humans (PCB workers sick). Levels in contaminated fish that humans eat are very disconcerting. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| all metals are toxic to humans in high amounts. Hg, Cd and Pb are not required by humans at any amounts. heavy metals show and affinity for S and thus combine with S-containing amino acids in proteins, resulting in toxic effects. rapidly absorb to particulate matter or are assimilated by living organisms. do not dissolve well, leading to a misleading degree of metal pollution if you just look at water quality. |
|
|
Term
| metals and Benthic organisms |
|
Definition
| Since metals often absorb to particulates many are deposited in the sediments. Thus affects for these organisms due to metal pollution are large. metals may leach out of polluted sediments for many years. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| results in progressively concentrated levels of a pollutant at higher tropic levels. Cause when a pollutant is persistent and not easily expelled, the levels accumulate in the organism and then when a higher tropic level feeds on several of those organisms the level in them is magnified. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Hg. Most important in producing Cl2 and sodium hydroxide NaOH. Use for many years because of economic efficiency. Much of the waste Hg was then discharged to the environment. recycling and replacement methods have lead to a decline in this use. Also very important in batteries. Today their use in batteries has been mostly eliminated. Use for many years as for antifouling paints, again concern over pollution has banned its use for this. used as a several chemical reactions, important in plastics. use as a fungicide on seeds =/ and in paper making, has since been stopped basically. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| metallic/inorganic mercury is 98% excreted by humans. generally harmless. more soluble salts of Hg however can cause serious problems! chronic vapor fumes can cause lung and brain damage. Inorganic: injuries to specific organs, often reversible. Organic: attacks the central nervous system causing irreversible damage. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| 3 major kinds: phenyl, alkyl, and methoxy. bacteria, mold and microbe scan methylate inorganic Hg. 90-95% of methyl Hg is absorbed by the intestines. seriously damages organs and brain! Since the brain can compensate for some losses it may not become apparent that there is poisoning until a great deal of damage has been done! Levels may build up greatly in fetus and not the mother =(. Can cause genetic damage. Very abundant in some food sources. 25-30mg is a dangerous level for an adult. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Bay showed serious problems with fish, shellfish, sea birds and other aquatic organisms. However the biggest disaster was "Minamata disease" to humans. In Japan HgO was use in acetaldhyde production from 1932-????. fist human case was reported in 1956 and numbers of afflicted rapidly increased. This year it was also found by one group to be cause by metal poisoning from fish in the bay. government only issue a warning to people. 1958 selling the fish was banned, but not catching them yourself. 1959 the factory new it's effluent was causing the disease but they suppressed this information. To the public they said we only use inorganic Hg, it's cool! government offically blamed Chisso in 1968. 1973 compensation by the courts was finally issued. 68,000 per victim. Discharger weren't terminated until 1968 and even then it was only due to a substituted method, not gov mandate. Gov never banned fishing. |
|
|
Term
| pollution laws dealing with mercury |
|
Definition
| 1899 refuse act, FIFRA in 1947 and Clean Water Act of 1972. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| most contamination for Americans comes from Tuna. levels of 1.0ppm methyl Hg in fish is realistic only if one consumes less than 20g of fish per day. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Pb. Greeks, Romans, Egyptians and Colonist all suffer from Pb poisoning. Today the major uses of Pb are industrial for batteries, ammunition and paint pigments. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Uses as a gasoline additive in the US for roughly 60 years. in 1977 all new cars had to run on unleaded. Also forced a decline in leaded gasoline and eventually completely phased it out. 80% of gas sold worldwide is now unleaded. emissions from burning gasoline still release about 6,000 tonnes/y. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| significant cause is fallout from the atmosphere. food processing, pb-soldered cans, corrosion in plumbing all lead to human exposure. acid water especially dissolves Pb and communities with acidic tap water have appreciable leaching levels. contaminated air. absorption from air 40%, water 10% and food 7%. |
|
|
Term
| human absorption and toxicity to lead |
|
Definition
| inorganic: accumulates in bones replacing Ca, slowly leaches back to blood. Organic: accumulates in fatty tissue. Pb is a metabolic poison, disturbing proteins and enzymes and damaging tissues. causes anemia, CNS damage, kidney damage and effects on children and reproduction =(. permanent neurological and physical impairment can develop in children. levels as low as 100ppb can be harmful! 1 in ever 6 kids is estimated to have Pb poisoning. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1) formation of energy rich organic compounds via photosynthesis 2) Sedimentation of C in an aerobic environment to prevent oxidation, 3) Metamorphosis, 4) Migration through porous rock til it is stopped and collected by an impervious layer. |
|
|
Term
| Sources of oil discharge into the marine environment |
|
Definition
| 1) Natural marine seeps, 2) sediment erosion, 3) offshore production, 4)tanker operations, 5) dry docking where ship must be cleaned out to go offline, 6) marine terminals, 7) blige and fuel oil which is waste sludge that is sometimes dumped at sea, 8) vessel accidents, 9) Atmosphere, 10) municipal wastes 11) industrial wastes 12) runoff and 13) ocean dumping. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organisms that adapt to stress. regulators may change the level but not the optimum state but conformers may change optimal state and range. |
|
|
Term
| Complicating factors for pollutants in the water? |
|
Definition
| pH level, Temperature effects of a given toxin may become more rapid in warmer water because of increased and metabolic levels, and water hardness. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fish encouraged not to migrate by warmer waters of power plants can die from thermal shock in the winter if the power plant temporarily shuts down. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a combination of biological, physical and chemical processes that ultimately degrade most oil discharged into an aquatic system. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Full cargo 180,000 tons of crude oil. 8 of 11 cargo tanks and 3 of 5 ballast tanks were punctured on the reef. 20% of the oil spilled into prince William sound. Barge was delayed in responding which made containment booms inadequate. during the first 60 hours weather conditions were ideal for mechanical clean-up with skimmers and booms but delays and inadequate response failed this opportunity. burning and chemical dispersants were initiated but the later was futile due to calm waters. A winter storm came and spread the slick considerably. price tag for the clean-up was 2 billion. clean-up was controversial because hot water used to remove oil from beaches actually killed and sterilized the beaches. only 14% of the spilled oil was recovered. 250,000 seabirds, 28% of sea otters and 14% of harbor seals were killed. The bethos was largely uneffected although pacific herring and pink salmon eggs and larvae were mutated and reduced in growth. a 1989 ban on fishing resulted in no overall affect to the population size of the fish. Several bird species were affected though the impact for most was very short-lived. Resulted in the federal government and oil industry implementing new prevention and response strategies. Including passage of the oil pollution act of 1990. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the stimulation of microbial breakdown to assist in pollution such as oil spills. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| used in the fingerprinting of oils by revealing the composition of the oil by separating the oil according to approximate molecular size of C content. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| amu's comes from combining the atoms total neutrons and protons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the number of protons an element has, this defines what element it is. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| atoms of the same element whose nuclei contain different numbers of neutrons. collectively the isotopes are referred to as nuclides. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an isotope that has the tendency to decay spontaneously or transform itself into some other isotope. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the amount of time during which half of the atoms of a given radionuclide can be expected to decay. |
|
|
Term
| alpha, beta and gamma rays |
|
Definition
| alpha- 2 p, 2 N, He. Beta- an electron or positron. Gamma is higher energy electromagnetic radiation. highly penetrating!! |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| intensity or activity of radiation measured in decay or disintegration per unit time. 1 Bq= 1 disintegration/second. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| measure of absorbed radiation where 1 gy equals the absorbed dose of 1 joule of energy per kilogram of material. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| used to multiply the radiation absorbed does in gray to estimate the relative biological damage. alpha particles cause greater biological damage per unit energy absorbed. (shows alpha particles and high energy protons and neutrons as more damaging than x rays, gamma rays and electrons.) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| persons representative of those individuals in the population expected to receive the highest dose equivalent. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the splitting of heavy radionuclide to produce two daughter nuclides. involves bombardment with neutrons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| substance that slows down neutrons. usually a low atomic number element. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| combining two elements of low atomic number in high heat to release large amounts of energy. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a neutron produced by a fission or fussion reaction combines with a stable nucleotide to produce a radionuclide. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| one or a few pathways that are found to be much more important than any others in causing human exposure. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| radioactive wastes of greatest concern that come from reactor fuel |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| highly radioactive wastes associated with maintenance of nuclear facilities. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| all radioactive was not assigned to some other category. typically have short-lived half lives. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient water temperature. |
|
|
Term
| closed-cooling systems vs once-through systems |
|
Definition
| systems that involve recycling of the cooling water vs systems which use cooling water once and then discard it. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the breakdown of radioactive unstable atoms into more stable atoms. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| All TRU elements are heavier than uranium, aka about 92 amu, have several isotopes, and are typically man-made. Come from reprocessing spent reactors. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| 720,000 gallons spilled into RI after the tugboat caught fire and both the boat and barge ran aground on moonstone beach. 11 of 16 compartments leaked. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Wood's hole near by helped to study the effects of oil pollution. benthic and geochemical techniques were used to track the oil and significant affects to the aquatic environment were found. used technologies previously use by companies to explore for oil. shows oil throughout the water column. =( pelagic and benthic organism assimilation. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| possible prevention steps: more coastal response teams, pipeline, states allowed to create regulations, alternative energy, avoiding high risk areas in transport. Actually measures taken: make operators on land more responsible. ship owners couldn't put risky vessels to sea and then protect themselves from the consequences. cargo holders must take fair share of responsibility. Incentives so that problems and prevention will be corrected on their own. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| spread rights away, later starts to evaporate & disperse. May take hours for sedimentation and weeks for biodegredation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The fate of oil was estimated by newspapers aka people winging it. |
|
|
Term
| How long does it take for sediments to return to background level? |
|
Definition
| about 20-30 years for marshes. |
|
|
Term
| Oils affects of marine organisms |
|
Definition
| wipes out a lot of species & a fair amount of benthic organisms. (bad for the ecosystem). it takes years for those species to come back and biodiversity will remain depressed for a long time. |
|
|
Term
| What should we always be considering? |
|
Definition
| The policy process stages (Problem Identification, Agenda building, policy formulation, Policy Adoption, Budgeting, Implementation , Evaluation , Policy and Program Sucession) and input, fate and effects. |
|
|
Term
| Evaluation of outputs vs outcomes |
|
Definition
| outputs- what the government does. it has an uncertain outcome. vs outcome- the actual changes in the natural environment attributed to the program. |
|
|
Term
| Electroplating industry in RI |
|
Definition
| for costume jewelry. uses a base metal then adds a shiny metal on top. in the 1980s it account for 1/5th of manufacturing jobs in RI. over 200 small shops using acid baths and metals and dumping them. |
|
|
Term
| consequences of electroplating |
|
Definition
| Caused waste water & sewage treatment problems and ultimately bay problems (shellfish not safe to eat). |
|
|
Term
| Waste rules for electroplating |
|
Definition
In the 1970s-1980s there were no rules!
most discharge to sewer and follow sewer rules, large companies discharge to water body and follow NPDES and national effluent guidelines. |
|
|
Term
| electroplating influent and effluent |
|
Definition
Influent: 600lbs/day of nickel copper and cyanide and 200lbs zinc and less than 20lbs chromium, led, silver and cadmium.
POTW Effluent: 45% zinc, 20% copper, 25% N, 5 % Cr, 4% Pb and 1% Cd. |
|
|
Term
| Sources of pollution in RI back in the 1980s |
|
Definition
| Copper-mostly form sewage, Zinc- a lot from runoff and almost as much from sewage, and Pb-mostly from urban runoff! |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| to avoid the problems of a polluted bay we must avoid the contaminated sewage. EPA gave POTW authority to come up with alternatives for metal platers & enforcement through legal and technical capabilities and resources. Today total metal influent is 1/20th the 1980s level but we have a lot less metal firms now. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| from 1942-1972 there was no limits on dumping of PCBs. in 1972 GE applied for a permit for 30-40lbs per day under FWPCA. Got the permit in 1975. in 1973 a dam was removed, spreading the PCB pollution affects. 1975 also saw the close of fisheries and then action against GE. 504,000 lbs eventually discharged! |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hotspots occured along the river especailly in back water and slow flow areas. overall the geographic extent of PCBs was very large. pumpkin seed, brownbullhead, goldfish, largemouth bass and striped bass were all closed. |
|
|
Term
| Cost of dredging the Hudson |
|
Definition
| 720-120 dollars per lb of dredged PCB. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| human use release, fossil fuel burning, ore smelting, rainfall and river runoff. 1st is easy to limit, the later ones are much harder to deal with! |
|
|
Term
| Why did we raise the levels for mercury limit? |
|
Definition
| Tuna from 1850 had mercury levels higher than the .5mg/kg limit thus we raised our standard to 1.0mg/kg. Should the government have said even if these levels are natural they are still toxic to people? |
|
|
Term
| Where does DDT go in the body? |
|
Definition
| At first the brain and liver, after a few months it settles into the muscles, GI track and liver. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| relative amount of biological damage! |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| control leads to nuclear power plant, no control is for BOMBS. |
|
|
Term
| Why doesn't the US reprocess it's waste? |
|
Definition
| Too much risk in keeping track of the plutonium during the process. Some could easily get lost, enough to make a bomb =/. |
|
|
Term
| How many power plants do we have? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| US sources of ionizing radiation |
|
Definition
| 82% Natural: 55% radon, 8% cosmic, 8% terrestrial, 11% internal. 18% Manmade: 11% X-rays, 4% nuclear medicine, 3% consumer products and 0.1% nuclear fuel cycle. |
|
|
Term
| somatic vs genetic damage |
|
Definition
| somatic- damage to non-reproductive/body cells vs genetic- abnormalities/defects in the next generation because of effects on parents reproductive organs. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 13? Has a short half life of 8 days making it very reactive. accumulates in the thyroid. Taking iodine pills hopes to lessen uptake of radioactive iodine if you come into contact with it. |
|
|
Term
| What type of waste was commonly added to the atmosphere from nuclear testing? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the dumping of transuranic wastes, especailly Ru-106 led to really high Bq concentration in porphya seaweed --> bread humans ate = BAD! |
|
|
Term
| critical pathway in the Columbia river? |
|
Definition
| fish eaten from the river. |
|
|
Term
| Affects on organisms that enter a thermal condenser? |
|
Definition
| chlorination, velocity changes, screen & gate damage, temperature increases and pressure fluctuations. |
|
|
Term
| Main causes of nuclear accidents? |
|
Definition
| Human error, rule violation, equipment malfunction and inadequate technical knowledge of operators. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| There was a big fire at windscale but it was not formally reported because many including the prime minister feared it would upset nuclear relations with the US. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Is in middletwon, PA. feedwater pump broke and radioactive core started to overheat and melt. Most of the damage was contained in unit 2. It took 980 million to clean-up. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An idea for ocean disposal of nuclear wastes. Has an inner glass encasing, followed by a metal canister. Then there is a rock encasing. The whole thing is shot into the sediment which also protects the waste and the ocean offers a final buffer between us and the waste? |
|
|
Term
| How much waste have we dumped into the oceans? |
|
Definition
| about 3,500,000 curies of radioactive waste, with 2.5 million being dump by the soviet union. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| oiling- the coating or smothering of an organisms with oil. associated with higher molecular weight oil. ingestion- disruption of a organisms metabolisms due to hydrocarbon incorporation following ingestion. associated with low weight aromatic hydrocarbons, cycloalkanes and alkanes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Most of the low weight hydrocarbons will evaporate within a few days. Thus an oil slick that gets to shore only days after the accident will be much less toxic to intertidal organisms. mixing exposes benthic and sub surface organisms to oil toxicity, calm waters do not. |
|
|
Term
| level of oil toxicity in the aquatic environment |
|
Definition
| general conclusion that the toxic effects of oil are not observed below concentrations of 10 ppb. more resistant organisms can actually flourish after an oil spill because of reduce competitors and predators, ex Cyanobacteria. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| oil in the aquatic environment is not likely to affect us greatly. Most of our oil risks come from atmosphere pollution. There could be a risk with oil laden fish but when the amount of hydrocarbons in a fish exceed a certain level the fish tastes unpalatable, so no worries. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1969 oil barge grounded in buzzards Bay, Ma. release 570 tones of fuel oil. storm the following day mixed that oil into the water and sediments. in the area of the initial spill virtually all organisms were killed. killed the grass, the oil laden sands then eroded spreading the pollution. grew to 10 times it's original size. Crabs remained affected for at least 7 years due to continued oil toxicity. |
|
|
Term
| Oil pollution act of 1990 |
|
Definition
| intended to minimize oil spills through improved tanker design, operational changes and greater preparedeness. Also required phasing in of double hull tankers. |
|
|
Term
| Short term approaches to oil cleanup in the water |
|
Definition
| Burning, Chemical Dispersal, Mechanical containment and clean-up and sinking. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| it is difficult to ignite and maintain flames for heavy oil. oil needs to be fresh and confined, aka thick not spread out to be successfully burned, not currently an important response tool. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| based in part on aesthetic considerations. draw backs include reduced evaporation, greater contact with more organisms, more dissolving of toxic oils, droplets can be ingested by filter-feeders, and early dispersants were even toxic themselves! more effective and less toxic now. Can help to stop the oiling of birds, usually reserved for offshore spills. |
|
|
Term
| Mechanical Containment and Clean-up- |
|
Definition
| booms, skimmers and absorbents are used. booms and skimmers can only be used in calm waters. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an old outdated method of oil spill clean-up. sand, talc or chalk was added to sink the oil. bad for benethic organisms, slowed oil degradation and movement of oil-laden sediments spread the oil pollution far and wide. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| only useful weeks/months after the oil spill because it requires time to work. applying fertilizers to oil beaches can increase the rates of oil biodegredation. More effective in tropical than polar climates. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| radiation interacts with atoms and molecules breaking down bonds to form positively and negatively charged ion pairs and free radicals. they recombine in a variety of previous ways to cause harm. hydroxide radicals for example interact with enzymes, nucleic acids and the cell in general causing cell destruction or malfunction. |
|
|
Term
| toxic affects of radionuclides |
|
Definition
| depend on the intensity and energy of the admitted radition, location of the radionuclide and the type of organisms. Alpha and beta particles only spread a little thus causing greater intensity of damage but are generally only a risk if ingested because they can't spread far. gamma rays leave less intense damage but have a greater external risk component because they can spread farther! |
|
|
Term
| cell division and radiation |
|
Definition
| cells that are rapidly dividing are more sensitive to radiation, thus damage is greater for younger children and reproductive organs and bone marrow. |
|
|
Term
| radiation exposure in consumer products |
|
Definition
| principle cause is radon in water supplies. building materials, mining, agricultural products and coal burning can also contribute. |
|
|
Term
| present radiation guidelines in the US |
|
Definition
| no more than .1mSv/y to an individual. causes a .3% change in cancer fatalities or about 1,200 additional cancer per year. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| natural uranium must be enriched with U235 to be usable as fuel! |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| mass of fuel just large enough to sustain a chain reaction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| graphite moderator fire. cause a complete loss of the nuclear reactor and released about 10$ of the radioactivity of Hiroshima. Most was 131 I which has a short half life. milk was seized as a precaution. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| no margin of safety because 3 of 4 feed pumps were out of commission, violation of federal rules. various mechanical failure also contributed to the problem of reactor overheat. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| testing the generator's abilities, disregarded numerous safety standards. operation failure and mechanical failure all lead to the disaster and fire explosions which eventually killed about 39,000 people. Soviets did not evacuate the area in a timely manner. |
|
|
Term
| comparative costs of nuclear and coal energy |
|
Definition
| by 1987 the cost of producing electricity in the US from new nuclear power plants was twice the cost of electricity produced from new fossil fuel plants. |
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