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| The organized body of knowledge, or science, that evaluates arguments. |
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| Groups of statements, one or more of which (the premises) are claimed to provide support for, or reasons to believe, one of the others (the conclusion). |
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| Sentences that are either true or false—in other words, typically a declarative sentence or a sentence component that could stand as a declarative as a declarative sentence. |
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therefore, accordingly, entails that, wherefore,
hence, thus, it must be that, it follows that,
consequently, for this reason,
implies that we may infer,
so as a result,
we may conclude |
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since, in that, seeing that, as indicated by,
may be inferred from, for the reason that, because, as inasmuch as, for, given that, owing to |
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| The reasoning process expressed by an argument. |
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| The meaning or information content of a statement |
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Two conditions that must be fulfilled for a passage to purport to prove something: |
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1. At least one of the statements must claim to present evidence or reasons. (The first condition expresses a factal claim, is beyond logic, and will not be dealt with).
2. There must be a claim that the alleged evidence or reasons supports or implies something—that is, a claim that something follows from the alleged evidence. (The second condition is an inferential claim that makes the claim or implication that something follows or is supported by what preceded.) |
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| Inferential claims are usually asserted by premise or conclusion indicators (thus, since, because, hence, therefore) |
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| Implicit inferential claims exist when there is an inferential relationship between the statements on the passage. |
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| Warning, piece of advice, statement of belief or opinion, loosely associated statements, reports. |
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| Kinds of discourse that begin with a topic sentence followed by one or more sentences that develop the topic sentence. If the objective is only to expand it is not an argument. |
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| Consists of a statement about a certain subject combined with a reference to one or more specific instances intended to exemplify that statement. Illustrations are often confused with arguments because many of them contain indicators words. |
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| Purports to shed light on an event or phenomenon |
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| If..then statements. Not arguments. |
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| Claims that it is impossible for the conclusion to be false given the premises are true. The conclusion necessarily follows from the premise. |
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| Claims that it is improbable that the conclusion is false. In other words, it is likely that the conclusion follows from the premises. |
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| Typical Deductive Arguments |
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| Mathematics, from definition, and categorical, hypothetical and disjunctive syllogism. |
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| Conclusion is claimed to depend ojn the definition of one word. |
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| Each statement begins with either all, no, or some, and it contains exactly two premises and a conclusion. |
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| Has a condition for one or both premises |
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| Has an either or statement for one of its premises. |
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| Typical Inductive Arguments |
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| Mathematics, from definition, and categorical, hypothetical and disjunctive syllogism. |
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| Use of the past to make a claim about the future. |
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| Depends on analogy or similarity between two things. |
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| Proceeds from an individual sample to the whole group. |
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| Based on an expert or witness |
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| Based on a sign to knowledge of the things or situation that the sign symbolizes. |
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| Based on cause and effect and vice versa |
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| Are either valid or invalid |
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| Conclusion must be true if premises are true. |
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| False conclusion with true premises. |
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| Deductive argument that is valid and has true premises. |
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| Deductive Argument that is valid and has true premises. |
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| Either strong or weak, cogent or uncogent. |
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| Improbable that conclusion is false given the premises are true. |
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| Conclusion does not probably follow the premises. |
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| A strong inductive arguments with true premises. |
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| A weak inductive with a false premise. |
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