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The study of lingustic meaning-words, phrases
A part of grammar
The study of the internal structure of language
Fields of linguistics and philosophy have provided essential information relative to the study of semantics |
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Study of the core of the meaning or sense of individual words
One method, lexical decomposition: represents the sense of a word in terms of the semantics features |
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Semitic features
There is specific value for the features presented |
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Provide an explanation for the intuition of speakers of English
The ability to characterize the senses of additional words can be accomplished by adding features
Man, woman, boy, girl puppy
Provides an opportunity to characterize an infite number of words with finite number of words with finite number of features |
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There is little agreement amongst linguistics regarding the number of semantic features
Nouns can be categorized much easier than other parts of speech |
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Study the meaning of sentences by examining
Reference- the study of what objects are referred to by linguistic expression
Truth conditions- the study of the conditions under which a statement can be judge to be true or false |
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| Advantages to references and truth conditions |
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| They have very restricted domains that can be studied in details |
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| Limitation to references and truth conditions |
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| Both methods overlook information that may define meaning |
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| The study of semantics is divided into |
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Divided into speaker-sense and linguistic-sense
Speaker sense
The speaker’s intention in producing some linguistic expression
Primarily involved in non-literal meaning
Not truly a part of semantics
More closely related to pragmatics |
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The meaning of linguistic expression as part of a language
Literal meaning
Is independent of the speaker, hearing or content
As long as the sentence means what is actually says, it is expressing linguistic sense
Denotation-the fist definition in the dictionary |
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Lexical ambiguity
A word is lexically ambiguous if it has more than one sense
Fly- zipper, baseball, cool, insect |
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Theory can account for multiple meanings of words by listing the words and their meanings multiple times in the lexicon of English
Each word becomes a lexical entry |
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Two words that have the same sense and the same values for all their sense
There are no absolute synonyms in any language
No 2 words mean exactly the same thing in all contexts
Differences in connotations are not captured in synonymy
Connotations- the associations that speakers have with words
Level of formality |
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A word that contains the meaning of a more general words
A word whose meaning contains all the same features of another word in addition to other features
Eg- miniature poodle contains the meaning of dog and therefore poodle is a hyponym for the superordinate dog
There are a number of hyponyms for each superordinate |
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| The superordinate is the included word in the lexical entry |
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2 words overlap in meaning if they share the same values for some semantic features that constitutes their meaning
Sister, niece, mother, aunt |
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| Overlap and hyponymy differ |
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Hyponymy-the meaning of one word is entirely included in the meaning of another word
People- dog |
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the meaning of words intersect, but none entirely includes the other
Not all sisters are nieces |
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2 words are anonyms if their meanings differ for a single semantic feature
Dead vs. alive
The meanings of the number of an antonym pair are identical with opposite values of one semantic property |
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Pairs that exhaust all linguistic possibilities along some dimension
Dead/alive |
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Pairs that describe opposite ends of a continuous dimension
Old/young hot/cold
Members of a larger set of related words |
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Pairs that describe the relationship between 2 items from opposite perspectives
Above/below |
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| It is not easy to classify antonyms: |
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Test to determine if antonyms are converse
If x is ___ Y, then Y is ___X
If not converser then test to determine if antonyms are binary
If X is not ___, then X must be ___
If not binary, then test to determine if antonyms are gradable
X is very___ |
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What the speaker is referring to when using words, phrases and sentences
A part of pragmatics |
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| Deals with reference that is systematic functions of the language |
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The entity identified by the use of a referring expression
That bird looks sick, you look nice today |
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A typical member of the extension
That bird looks sick—blue jay (protype of bird) |
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A list of charactericts describing a prototype
A bird has 2 wings and 2 legs and feathers |
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| Linguistic reference types |
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Conferences
Anaphora
Deixis |
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2 linguistic expressions that refer to the same real word
Queen Elizabeth, the Queen of England |
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A linguistic expression that refers to another linguistic expression
A co-reference of an expression with an antecedent
A well dressed man was speaking, he had a foreign accent |
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| An expression that has one meaning but can refer to different entities depending on the speaker and his spatial and temporal orientation |
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| Interpretation depends on: |
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Who is speaking?
Time or place of speaker
Gestures of speaker
Current location of discourse |
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Semantics: Truth
Truth conditions fall into 2 categories |
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The study of different types of truth within individual sentences
Analytical
Contradictory
Synthetic
The study of different types of truth relations between sentences
Entailment
Presupposition |
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A sentence that is true because of words that are used
A bachelor is an unmarried man |
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The opposite of analytical sentences
A bachelor is a married man |
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sentences that may be true or false depending on how the world is at the time
Not true or false based upon words used to describe or define it
Do not describe some state of affirs in the wordld
My oldest cousin is female |
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A positional sentence that follows another sentence
Unidirectional relationship:
Martina aced chemistry-entails she passed chemistry
Paraphrase-each sentence entails the other
She passed chemistry- what she passed was chemistry |
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Definition
A propositional sentence that must be assumed to be true in order to judge the truth or falsity of another sentence
Constancy under negation-the presupposition depends upon the fact that a sentence and its denial have the same set of presuppositions
Background belief relating to an utterance that must be mutually
John regretted that he stopped taking linguistics before leaving UDC |
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Structures or words that assume, or presuppose the truth of the proposition expressed in a sentence or the speakers
attitude about it
Jon saw/didn’t see the man with 2 heads. |
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WH-questions-when will you take out the trash
Factive verb
Non-factive verbs
Implicative verbs |
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Acknowledge, be aware, bear in mind, demonstrate, grasp, make clear, note, prove, regret, resent, show, take into consideration, take into account
John realized he was in debt |
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Allege, assert, assume, believe, charge, claim, conclude, conjecture, fancy, figure, maintain, suggest, suppose, think
He assumed that I knew where to go |
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Avoid, forget, remember, bother, neglect, fail, refrain, manage, happen
John managed to open the door |
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