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“language is a system”
it is governed by rules
it is made up of grammars |
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| what defines a language can be influenced by factors that are: |
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| Cultural, political, technical |
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| generality, parity, universality, mutability, inaccessibility |
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| the mental system that allows humans to form and interpret the sounds, words and sentences of their language. |
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the ability to produce and understand an unlimited number of utterances.
Includes the ability to recognize that certain utterances are not acceptable in one’s language |
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| the physical production and perception of sounds of speech |
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| describes the way sounds function within a given language or across languages |
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| the study of the structure of word forms |
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| study of the rules, or "patterned relations" that govern how words are placed in a sentence (word order) |
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| study of meaning of (parts of) words, phrases, sentences, and texts |
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| concept that there are rules which aim to ‘prescribe’ what is judged to be correct language use |
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describes properties of observed language
no judgements of ‘correctness’ with respect to language usage |
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| specialized words and expressions that are difficult to understand for people not part of the specialized group |
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differences in how people pronounce words, which vary systematically and very often on the basis of geography
effects of a speaker’s native language on a second (non-native) language |
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differences between speakers of the same language with respect to vocabulary choices, syntactic and morphological variants, as well as phonological and phonetic variations
e.g. British English, Canadian English, Southern American English, Australian English |
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| the study of how social factors (age, gender, ethnicity, class, etc.) affect the way that people use/view language |
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| sociolinguistic variables |
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Socioeconomic Class
Gender
Ethnicity
Age
Regional (i.e. geographical)
Education |
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| can change a language directly |
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manufacture of consent
5 filters |
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creation and maintenance of a ‘common-sense’ ideology (Noam Chomsky)
5 filters are used when manufacturing consent through mass media (Edward Herman) |
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| a set or pattern or beliefs |
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| ideologies held by those owning mass media are reflected (and protected) |
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| ideologies of those paying for advertising are supported |
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| ideologies of large news agencies vs. those of smaller corporations |
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do ideologies projected spark complaints or applause?
stories that produce strong reactions (e.g. outrage, horror, national pride) receive more focus |
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| avoid communism (and socialism) |
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Jakobson
6 factors in a speech event: |
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| medium/contact, message/content, code, context, addressee, addresser |
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| emotive; referential; conative; phatic; poetic; metalingual |
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marked*
hegemonic (dominant)*
in advertising
interpellation (way people are addressed and positions by ideologies)* |
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| label,sounds used to represent a concept |
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words are signs
sign = signifier + signified |
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arbitrary connection between the signifier and the signified
onomatopoeic words also have an arbitrary connection between the signifier and signified |
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| Language is composed of Langue and parole |
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Definition
| langue is the system and parole is how you use it |
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| life cycle of a new word or word-usage: |
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Definition
new word/usage starts as parole
other language users understand and adopt new word/usage
when new word/usage becomes established or recognized, then it has entered langue |
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| tend not to exist in language; there is usually a slight difference of meaning between two signs |
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| signs can be lost from the system due to taking on insulting connotations |
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analysis of language over a period of time
e.g. meat OE ‘food’ > ModE ‘animal flesh’ |
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analysis of language at a specific point in time; a ‘snapshot’ in time
e.g. badonkadonk current slang in North American English to refer to a curvaceous female buttocks |
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| the notion that the semantic structure of the language that a person speaks either determines or limits the ways in which they are able to form conceptions of the world in which they live |
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the way in which languages divide the world differently
languages differ in terms of the signs that can be used to describe the world |
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the limits of language are the limits of the world
strong view – if there is not a sign for it, then a concept is unthinkable
this strong view has been falsified, since...
we can create new signs for new concepts
experiments on color show that people can recognize differences even if their language does not mark the differences |
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our language influences the way we think
i.e. signs and structures of language can influence thought
weaker claim – languages “provide speakers with a systematic default bias in their habitual response tendencies.” (Lucy 2005:307)
based on our language, particular habits of thinking are formed |
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| describes the order in which words are placed |
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to draw attention to something
selection of an active or a passive sentence affects what is put in the foreground |
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| describes the way words are chosen from among all possible choices and, as a consequence, can be said to be meaningful |
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whether a verb needs to take a direct object
transitive verbs need direct objects
e.g. like, wear, require, bump, feel
intransitive verbs do not need direct objects
e.g. sing, run, sit, jump, steal |
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| concerned with who does what to whom |
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| noun having something done to it |
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| verb describing what is being done |
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| other details regarding what is being done |
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| , an actor is not required |
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deals with decision-making and government
i.e. work associated with politicians
politicians making decisions on behalf of the public
government creation of laws for the public
refers to any social relationship which deals with power, governing and authority |
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| politics occur in any environment where relations of power are present |
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Places of work
Educational institutions
families |
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5-step process for speech making
(rhetoric) |
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Definition
invention/idea(ideology, what are you presenting)
Arrangement (how are you going to say it, what order)
Style (how is it are you going to say it)
Memory (what you will say so it stays in their mind)
Delivery (making it interesting) |
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Definition
pronouns
metaphor
simile
rule of three
parallelism
contrastive pairs
Euphemism Used to make less offensive
Dyseuphemism say words like terrorist, not lightening the situation to get people fired up |
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Definition
politics occur in everyday situations, even those that we may not be aware of
e.g. vying for speaking time in a meeting (office, community, etc.) or within a family |
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passive voice
presupposition
implicature |
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a background assumption embedded within a sentence or phrase
information taken for granted to be true regardless of whether the whole sentence is true |
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| Presuppostion (implicature can) |
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| cannot be changed when the sentence is negated |
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a meaning which can be extracted but is implicit rather than explicit
an utterance can imply a statement that is not necessarily a consequence of the utterance. |
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| the study of how language is used to communicate within its situational context. |
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| two basic rules of conversation (Grice's maxims) |
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take turns in conversation
cooperative principle |
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participants in a conversation are cooperating with each other
Maxim of Quality
Maxim of Quantity
Maxim of Relevance/Relation
Maxim of Manner |
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Definition
speakers' contributions ought to be true.
do not say what you believe to be false
do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence
No rumors |
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Definition
speakers' contributions should be as informative as required; not saying either too little or too much.
make your contribution as informative as is required
do not make your contribution more informative than required |
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| maxim of relation/relevance |
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Definition
contributions should relate to the purposes of the exchange
be relevant |
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contributions should be perspicuous - in particular, they should be orderly and brief, avoiding obscurity and ambiguity.
avoid obscurity of expression
avoid ambiguity
be brief
be orderly |
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| Breaking the rules(maxims) of conversation |
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refers to the same media message reaching a mass of people
television
radio
printed press
may be subject to censorship and other restrictions |
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refers to the use of digital technology to connect to people around the world and to allow for social engagement
increasingly characterized by user-generated content
blogs, vlogs, chat rooms, message boards, social networking sites, Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, etc. |
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| an intervening source that exists between speakers/authors and audience members (e.g. newspaper, tv, etc) |
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| things to consider when the news is being reported |
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Definition
implications of word choice
transitivity and active/passive voice |
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| deals with the fact that different aspects of an event can be foregrounded, backgrounded, omitted, or presupposed |
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| ideological square (van dijk) |
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| consists of an ‘us’ group and a ‘them’ group with the ‘good’ and ‘bad’ acts of each statement being variously emphasized or mitigated |
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| there are always competing discourses or ways of speaking about any issue, but one usually arises as the.... |
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| primarily news broadcasters speak “the standard variety of the official language with a recognizably middle-class accent |
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| choices made regarding presentation of the news are related to power and language attitudes |
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| broadcasters seem to have more authority when using standard language variety |
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Definition
term coined by Michel Foucault refers to the indivisible relationship between power and knowledge
term suggests that having knowledge is powerful and the belief that what is said by those in power is more likely to be knowledgeable and truthful
reflects the idea that the powerful are always those who speak and write in the proper way |
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Definition
the way that language can systematically vary according to the situation in which it is used
linguistic variation that occurs according to the context of use |
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| characteristics of different registers |
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Definition
sentence structure
pronunciation
vocabulary |
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| the topic or subject matter of the discourse |
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| the style and level of formality resulting from a specific situation |
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| the medium of communication (e.g. speech, written, visual, combination) |
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| the medium of communication (e.g. speech, written, visual, combination) |
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