Term
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Definition
| The pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the lifespan. Most development involves growth, although it also includes decline brought on by aging and dying. |
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Term
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Definition
| The perspective that development is lifelong, multidimensional, multi directional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual; involves growth, maintenance, and regulation; and is constructed through biological, sociocultural, and individual factors working together. |
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Term
| normative age-graded influences |
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Definition
| These are influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group. |
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Term
| normative history-graded influences |
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Definition
| Influences that are common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstances |
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Term
| non-normative life events |
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Definition
| Unusual occurrences that have a major impact on an individual's life. |
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Term
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Definition
| The behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group passed on from generation to generation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Comparison of one culture with one or more other cultures. These provide information about the degree to which development is similar, or universal, across cultures, and the degree to which it is culture specific. |
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Term
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Definition
| The national government's course of action designed promote the welfare of its citizens. |
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Term
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Definition
| Changes and an ndividual's physical nature. |
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Term
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Definition
| Changes in an individual's thought, intelligence, and language. |
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Term
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Definition
| Changes in an individual's relationships with other people, emotions, and personality. |
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Term
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Definition
| Refers to the debate about whether development is primarily influenced by nature or nurture. Nature refers to an organisms biological inheritance, nurture to itsenvironmental experiences. The nature proponents claim biological inheritance is the most important influence on development; the nurture proponents claim the environmental experiences are the most important. |
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Term
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Definition
| Involves the degree to which we become older renditions of our early experience (stability) or whether we develop into someone different from who we were at an earlier point in development (change). |
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Term
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Definition
| Focuses on the extent to which development involves gradual, accumulative change (continuity) or distinct changes (discontinuity). |
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Term
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Definition
| An approach that can be used to obtain accurate information. It includes these steps: (1) conceptualize the problem, (2) collect data, (3) draw conclusions, and (4) revise research conclusions and theory |
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Term
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Definition
| An interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain and make predictions. |
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Term
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Definition
| Specific assumptions and predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy. |
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Term
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Definition
| Describe development as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotion. Behavior is merely a surface characteristic, and the symbolic workings of the mind have to be analyzed to understand behavior. Early experiences with parents are emphasized. |
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Term
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Definition
| Includes eight stages of human development. Each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved. |
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Term
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Definition
| States that children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through four stages of cognitive development. |
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Term
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Definition
| A sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development. |
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Term
| information-processing theory |
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Definition
| Emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. Central to this theory are the processes of memory and thinking. |
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Term
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Definition
| The view of psychologists who emphasize behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development. |
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Term
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Definition
| Stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods. |
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Term
| Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory |
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Definition
| Bronfenbrenner's environmental systems theory that focuses on five environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. |
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Term
| eclectic theoretical orientation |
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Definition
| An orientation that does not follow any one theoretical approach, but rather selects from each theory whatever is considered the best in it. |
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Term
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Definition
| A controlled setting in which many of the complex factors of the "real world" are removed. |
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Term
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Definition
| Observing behavior in real-world settings. |
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Term
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Definition
| A test with uniform procedures for administration and scoring. Many standardized tests allow a person's performance to be compared with the performance of other individuals. |
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Term
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Definition
| An in-depth look at a single individual. |
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Term
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Definition
| Has the purpose of observing and recording behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| The goal is to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics. |
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Term
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Definition
| A number based on statistical analysis that is used to describe the degree of association between two variables. |
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Term
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Definition
| A carefully regulated procedure in which one or more of the factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held constant. |
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Term
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Definition
| A research strategy in which individuals of different ages are compared at one time. |
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Term
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Definition
| A research strategy in which the same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more. |
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Term
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Definition
| Effects due to a person's time of birth, era, or generation but not to actual age. |
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Term
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Definition
| Using an ethnic label such as African American or Latino in a superficial way that portrays an ethnic group as being more homogeneous than it really is. |
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Term
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Definition
| Emphasizes the importance of adaptation, reproduction, and "survival of the fittest" in shaping behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| Threadlike structures that come in 23 pairs, one member of each pair coming from each parent. Chromosomes contain the genetic substance DNA. |
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Term
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Definition
| A complex molecule that contains genetic information. |
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Term
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Definition
| Units of hereditary information composed of DNA. Genes direct cells to reproduce themselves and manufacture the proteins that maintain life. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cellular reproduction in which the cell's nucleus duplicates itself with two new cells being formed, each containing the same DNA as the parent cell, arranged in the same 23 pairs of chromosomes. |
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Term
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Definition
| A specialized form of cell division that occurs to form eggs and sperm (or gametes). |
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Term
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Definition
| A stage in reproduction whereby an egg and a sperm fuse to create a single cell, called a zygote. |
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Term
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Definition
| A single cell formed through fertilization. |
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Term
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Definition
| A person's genetic heritage; the actual genetic material. |
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Term
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Definition
| The way an individual's genotype is expressed in observed and measurable characteristics. |
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Term
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Definition
| A chromosomally transmitted form of mental retardation, caused by the presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21. |
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Term
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Definition
| A chromosomal disorder in which males have an extra X chromosome, making them XXY instead of XY. |
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Term
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Definition
| A genetic disorder involving an abnormality in the X chromosome, which becomes constricted and often breaks. |
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Term
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Definition
| A chromosome disorder in females in which either an X chromosome is missing, making the person XO instead of XX, or the second X chromosome is partially deleted. |
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Term
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Definition
| A chromosomal disorder in which males have an extra Y chromosome. |
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Term
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Definition
| A genetic disorder in which an individual cannot properly metabolize an amino acid. PKU is now easily detected but, if left untreated, results in mental retardation and hyperactivity. |
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Term
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Definition
| A genetic disorder that affects the red blood cells and occurs most often in people of African descent. |
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Term
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Definition
| The field that seeks to discover the influence of heredity and environment on individuals differences in human traits and development. |
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Term
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Definition
| A study in which the behavioral similarity of identical twins is compared with the behavioral similarity of fraternal twins. |
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Term
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Definition
| A study in which investigators seek to discover whether, in behavior and psychological characteristics, adopted children are more like their adoptive parents, who provided a home environment, or more like their biological parents, who contributed their heredity. Another form of the adoption study is to compare adoptive and biological siblings. |
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Term
| passive genotype-environment correlations |
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Definition
| Correlations that exist when the natural parents, who are genetically related to the child, provide a rearing environment for the child. |
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Term
| evocative genotype-environment correlations |
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Definition
| Correlations that exist when the child's genotype elicits certain types of physical and social environments. |
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Term
| active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations |
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Definition
| Correlations that exist when children seek out environments they find compatible and stimulating. |
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Term
| shared environmental experiences |
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Definition
| Siblings' common environmental experiences, such as their parents' personalities and intellectual orientation, the family's socioeconomic status, and the neighborhood in which they live. |
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Term
| nonshared environmental experiences |
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Definition
| The child's own unique experiences, both within the family and outside the family, that are not shared by another sibling. Thus, experiences occurring within the family can be part of the "nonshared environment." |
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Term
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Definition
| Emphasizes that development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and environment. |
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Term
| gene x environment (G x E) interaction |
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Definition
| The interaction of a specific measured variation in the DNA and a specific measured aspect of the environment. |
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Term
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Definition
| The period of prenatal development that takes place in the first two weeks after conception. It includes the creation of the zygote, continued cell division, and the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall. |
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Term
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Definition
| The inner layer of cells that develops during the germinal period. These cells later develop into the embryo. |
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Term
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Definition
| The outer layer of cells that develops in the germinal period. These cells provide nutrition and support for the embryo. |
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Term
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Definition
| The period of prenatal development that occurs two to eight weeks after conception. During the embryonic period, the rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for the cells form, and organs appear. |
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Term
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Definition
| The life-support system that is a bag or envelope that contains a clear fluid in which the developing embryo floats. |
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Term
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Definition
| A life-support system containing two arteries and one vein that connects the baby to the placenta. |
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Term
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Definition
| A life-support system that consists of a disk-shaped group of tissues in which small blood vessels from the mother and off spring intertwine. |
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Term
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Definition
| Organ formation that takes place during the first two months of prenatal development. |
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Term
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Definition
| Lasting about seven months, the prenatal period between two months after conception and birth in typical pregnancies. |
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Term
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Definition
| Nerve cells, which handle information processing at the cellular level in the brain. |
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Term
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Definition
| From the Greek word tera, meaning "monster." Any agent that causes a birth defect. The field of study that investigates the causes of birth defects is called teratology. |
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Term
| fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) |
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Definition
| A cluster of abnormalities that appears in the off spring of mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy. |
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Term
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Definition
| The third stage of birth, when the placenta, umbilical cord, and other membranes are detached and expelled. |
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Term
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Definition
| A caregiver who provides continuous physical, emotional, and educational support for the mother before, during, and after childbirth. |
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Term
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Definition
| This method attempts to reduce the mother's pain by decreasing her fear through education about childbirth and relaxation techniques during delivery. |
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Term
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Definition
| Developed by French obstetrician Ferdinand Lamaze, this childbirth strategy is similar to natural childbirth but includes a special breathing technique to control pushing in the final stages of labor and a more detailed anatomy and physiology course. |
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Term
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Definition
| The baby's position in the uterus that causes the buttocks to be the first part to emerge from the vagina. |
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Term
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Definition
| The baby is removed from the mother's uterus through an incision made in her abdomen. |
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Term
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Definition
| A widely used method to assess the health of newborns at one and five minutes after birth. The Apgar Scale evaluates an infant's heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, body color, and reflex irritability. |
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Term
| Brazleton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) |
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Definition
| A measure that is used in the first month of life to assess the newborn's neurological development, reflexes, and reactions to people and objects. |
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Term
| Neonatal Intensive Scare Unit Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS) |
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Definition
| An "off spring" of the NBAS, the NNNS provides an assessment of the newborn's behavior, neurological and stress responses, and regulatory capacities. |
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Term
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Definition
| An infant that weighs less than 5½ pounds at birth. |
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Term
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Definition
| Those born before the completion of 37 weeks of gestation (the time between fertilization and birth). |
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Term
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Definition
| Also called small for gestational age infants, these infants' birth weights are below normal when the length of pregnancy is considered. Small for date infants may be preterm or full term. |
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Term
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Definition
| Treatment for preterm infants that involves skin-to-skin contact. |
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Term
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Definition
| The period after childbirth when the mother adjusts, both physically and psychologically, to the process of childbirth. This period lasts for about six weeks or until her body has completed its adjustment and returned to a near prepregnant state. |
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Term
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Definition
| Characteristic of women who have such strong feelings of sadness, anxiety, or despair that they have trouble coping with daily tasks in the postpartum period. |
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Term
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Definition
| The formation of a close connection, especially a physical bond, between parents and their newborn in the period shortly after birth. |
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Term
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Definition
| The sequence in which the earliest growth always occurs at the top—the head—with physical growth in size, weight, and feature differentiation gradually working from top to bottom. |
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Term
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Definition
| The sequence in which growth starts at the center of the body and moves toward the extremities. |
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Term
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Definition
| Specialization of function in one hemisphere of the cerebral cortex or the other. |
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Term
| sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) |
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Definition
| A condition that occurs when an infant stops breathing, usually during the night, and suddenly dies without an apparent cause. |
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Term
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Definition
| A wasting away of body tissues in the infant's first year, caused by severe protein-calorie deficiency. |
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Term
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Definition
| A condition caused by severe protein deficiency in which the child's abdomen and feet become swollen with water; usually appears between 1 to 3 years of age. |
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Term
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Definition
| The perspective on motor development that seeks to explain how motor behaviors are assembled for perceiving and acting. |
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Term
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Definition
| Built-in reactions to stimuli that govern the newborn's movements, which are automatic and beyond the newborn's control. |
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Term
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Definition
| A newborn's built-in reaction that occurs when the infant's cheek is stroked or the side of the mouth is touched. In response, the infant turns his or her head toward the side that was touched, in an apparent effort to find something to suck. |
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Term
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Definition
| A newborn's built-in reaction to automatically suck an object placed in its mouth. The sucking reflex enables the infant to get nourishment before he or she has associated a nipple with food and also serves as a self-soothing or self-regulating mechanism. |
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Term
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Definition
| A neonatal startle response that occurs in reaction to a sudden, intense noise or movement. When startled, the newborn arches its back, throws its head back, and flings out its arms and legs. Then the newborn rapidly closes its arms and legs to the center of the body. |
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Term
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Definition
| A neonatal reflex that occurs when something touches the infant's palms. The infant responds by grasping tightly. |
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Term
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Definition
| Motor skills that involve large muscle activities, such as walking. |
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Term
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Definition
| Motor skills that involve more finely tuned movements, such as finger dexterity. |
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Term
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Definition
| The product of the interaction between information and the sensory receptors—the eyes, ears, tongue, nostrils, and skin. |
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Term
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Definition
| The interpretation of what is sensed. |
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Term
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Definition
| The view that perception functions to bring organisms in contact with the environment and to increase adaptation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Opportunities for interaction off ered by objects that fit within our capabilities to perform functional activities. |
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Term
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Definition
| A method used to determine whether infants can distinguish one stimulus from another by measuring the length of time they attend to different stimuli. |
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Term
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Definition
| Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations of the stimulus. |
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Term
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Definition
| Recovery of a habituated response after a change in stimulation. |
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Term
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Definition
| The recognition that an object remains the same even though the retinal image of the object changes as you move toward or away from the object. |
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Term
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Definition
| The recognition that an object's shape remains the same even though its orientation to us changes. |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability to relate and integrate information from two or more sensory modalities, such as vision and hearing. |
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Term
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Definition
| In Piaget's theory, actions or mental representations that organize knowledge. |
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Term
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Definition
| Piagetian concept of using existing schemes to deal with new information or experiences. |
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Term
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Definition
| Piagetian concept of adjusting schemes to fit new information and experiences. |
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Term
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Definition
| Piaget's concept of grouping isolated behaviors and thoughts into a higher-order, more smoothly functioning cognitive system. |
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Term
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Definition
| A mechanism that Piaget proposed to explain how children shift from one stage of thought to the next. |
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Term
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Definition
| The first of Piaget's stages, which lasts from birth to about 2 years of age; infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motoric actions. |
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Term
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Definition
| Piaget's first sensorimotor substage, which corresponds to the first month after birth. In this substage, sensation and action are coordinated primarily through reflexive behaviors. |
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Term
| first habits and primary circular reactions |
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Definition
| Piaget's second sensorimotor substage, which develops between 1 and 4 months of age. In this substage, the infant coordinates sensation and two types of schemes: habits and primary circular reactions. |
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Term
| primary circular reaction |
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Definition
| A scheme based on the attempt to reproduce an event that initially occurred by chance. |
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Term
| secondary circular reactions |
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Definition
| Piaget's third sensorimotor substage, which develops between 4 and 8 months of age. In this substage, the infant becomes more object-oriented, moving beyond preoccupation with the self. |
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Term
| coordination of secondary circular reactions |
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Definition
| Piaget's fourth sensorimotor substage, which develops between 8 and 12 months of age. Actions become more outwardly directed, and infants coordinate schemes and act with intentionality. |
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Term
| tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity |
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Definition
| Piaget's fifth sensorimotor substage, which develops between 12 and 18 months of age. In this substage, infants become intrigued by the many properties of objects and by the many things that they can make happen to objects. |
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Term
| internalization of schemes |
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Definition
| Piaget's sixth and final sensorimotor substage, which develops between 18 and 24 months of age. In this substage, the infant develops the ability to use primitive symbols. |
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Term
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Definition
| The Piagetian term for understanding that objects and events continue to exist, even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched. |
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Term
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Definition
| Error that occurs when infants make the mistake of selecting the familiar hiding place (A) rather than the new hiding place (B) as they progress into substage 4 in Piaget's sensorimotor stage; also called AB error. |
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Term
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Definition
| States that infants are born with domain-specific innate knowledge systems. |
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Term
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Definition
| The focusing of mental resources on select information. |
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Term
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Definition
| Process that occurs when individuals focus on the same object and an ability to track another's behavior is present, one individual directs another's attention, and reciprocal interaction is present. |
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Term
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Definition
| A central feature of cognitive development, pertaining to all situations in which an individual retains information over time. |
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Term
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Definition
| Memory without conscious recollection; involves skills and routine procedures that are automatically performed. |
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Term
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Definition
| Memory of facts and experiences that individuals consciously know and can state. |
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Term
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Definition
| Imitation that occurs after a delay of hours or days. |
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Term
| developmental quotient (DQ) |
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Definition
| An overall score that combines subscores in motor, language, adaptive, and personal-social domains in the Gesell assessment of infants. |
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Term
| Bayley Scales of Infant Development |
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Definition
| Scales developed by Nancy Bayley that are widely used in the assessment of infant development. The current version has three components: a mental scale, a motor scale, and an infant behavior profile. |
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Term
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Definition
| A form of communication, whether spoken, written, or signed, that is based on a system of symbols. Language consists of the words used by a community and the rules for varying and combining them. |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules. |
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Term
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Definition
| The sound system of the language, including the sounds that are used and how they may be combined. |
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Term
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Definition
| Units of meaning involved in word formation. |
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Term
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Definition
| The ways words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences. |
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Term
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Definition
| The meaning of words and sentences. |
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Term
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Definition
| The appropriate use of language in different contexts. |
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Term
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Definition
| The use of short and precise words without grammatical markers such as articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives. |
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Term
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Definition
| An area in the brain's left frontal lobe that is involved in speech production. |
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Term
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Definition
| An area in the brain's left hemisphere that is involved in language comprehension. |
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Term
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Definition
| A loss or impairment of language ability caused by brain damage. |
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Term
| language acquisition device (LAD) |
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Definition
| Chomsky's term that describes a biological endowment enabling the child to detect the features and rules of language, including phonology, syntax, and semantics |
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Term
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Definition
| Language spoken in a higher pitch than normal with simple words and sentences. |
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Term
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Definition
| Feeling, or affect, that occurs when a person is in a state or interaction that is important to him or her. Emotion is characterized by behavior that reflects (expresses) the pleasantness or unpleasantness of the state a person is in or the transactions being experienced. |
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Term
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Definition
| Emotions that are present in humans and other animals and emerge early in life; examples are joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust. |
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Term
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Definition
| Emotions that require self-awareness, especially consciousness and a sense of "me"; examples include jealousy, empathy, and embarrassment. |
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Term
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Definition
| A rhythmic pattern usually consisting of a cry, a briefer silence, a shorter inspiratory whistle that is higher pitched than the main cry, and then a brief rest before the next cry. |
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Term
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Definition
| A variation of the basic cry, with more excess air forced through the vocal cords. |
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Term
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Definition
| A sudden appearance of a long, initial loud cry without preliminary moaning, followed by breath holding. |
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Term
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Definition
| A smile that does not occur in response to external stimuli. It happens during the month after birth, usually during sleep. |
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Term
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Definition
| A smile in response to an external stimulus, which early in development is typically a face. |
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Term
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Definition
| An infant's fear and wariness of strangers; it tends to appear in the second half of the first year of life. |
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Term
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Definition
| An infant's distressed crying when the caregiver leaves. |
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Term
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Definition
| Involves individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding. |
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Term
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Definition
| A child who is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and adapts easily to new experiences. |
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Term
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Definition
| A child who tends to react negatively and cry frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept change. |
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Term
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Definition
| A child who has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood. |
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Term
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Definition
| Refers to the match between a child's temperament and the environmental demands with which the child must cope. |
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Term
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Definition
| "Reading" emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation. |
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Term
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Definition
| A close emotional bond between two people. |
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Term
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Definition
| An observational measure of infant attachment that requires the infant to move through a series of introductions, separations, and reunions with the caregiver and an adult stranger in a prescribed order. |
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Term
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Definition
| Babies that use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment. |
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Term
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Definition
| Babies that show insecurity by avoiding the caregiver. |
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Term
| insecure resistant babies |
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Definition
| Babies that often cling to the caregiver, then resist the caregiver by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by kicking or pushing away. |
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Term
| insecure disorganized babies |
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Definition
| Babies that show insecurity by being disorganized and disoriented. |
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Term
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Definition
| Socialization that is bidirectional; children socialize parents, just as parents socialize children. |
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Term
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Definition
| Parents time interactions so that infants experience turn-taking with the parents. |
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