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| living entity made up of one or more cells |
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| Five Fundamental Characteristics of Organisms |
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| energy, cells, information, replication, evolution |
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| explanation for very general class of phenomena or observations |
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| highly organized compartment that is bounded by thin, flexible structure called plasma membrane and that contains concentrated chemicals in an aqueous solution |
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| states that all organisms are made of cells, and all cells come from preexisting cells |
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| Scientific Theory Components |
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1) describes pattern in natural world
2) identifies mechanism/ process responsible for creating pattern |
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| something that can be measured and that must be correct if a hypothesis is valid |
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| changes in population that occur when humans select certain individuals to produce most offspring |
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| ability of an individual to produce offspring |
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| trait that increases the fitness of an individual in a particular environment |
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| graphical representation of evolutionary relationships between species |
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| system to name and classify organisms |
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| taxonomic category (3 domains: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya) |
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| idea that species are unchanging types and that variations within species are unimportant or even misleading |
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| specifies what we should observe if the hypothesis being tested does not hold |
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| checks for factors other than the one being tested that might influence the experiment's outcome |
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| group of organisms in an experiment that received experimental treatment |
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1) has two parts
2) always italicized
3) organism's genus and species designation |
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| made up of closely related group of species |
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| made up of individuals that regularly breed together or have characteristics that are distinct from those of other species |
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| group of individuals of the same species living in the same area at the same time |
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| Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection |
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1) Charles Darwin, 1858
2) All species are related by common ancestry.
3) Descent with modification: characteristics of species can be modified from generation to generation |
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1) traits beneficial to current environment are "selected" within a natural population
2) occurs when individuals with certain characteristics produce more offspring than do individuals without those characteristics |
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| family tree of organisms that describes the genealogical relationships among species with a single ancestral species at its base |
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1) actual genealogical relationships among all organisms
2) family tree of populations or species |
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| states that ants always know how far they are from nest because they track the number of steps taken and length of their stride |
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| Great Chain of Being/ Scale of Nature |
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1) from Aristotle
2) claims that species are fixed types and some species are higher (more complex/better) that others |
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| Descent with modification |
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1) idea that species that lived in the past are the ancestors of the species existing today, and that species and their descendant species change through time
2) Heritable variation leads to --> Differential success in survival and reproduction |
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| variation among individuals in a population was key to understanding the nature of species |
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| Why was the theory of evolution by natural selection revolutionary? (3 reasons) |
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1) overturned idea that species are static and unchanging
2) replaced typological thinking with population thinking
3) it was scientific |
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| consists of all the fossils that have been found and described in the scientific literature |
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| species still living today |
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| any trace of organism that lived in the past |
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| sequence of named intervals called eons, eras, and periods that represented the major events in Earth history |
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| form from layers of sand and mud --> each layer is associated with different interval in geologic time |
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| species that no longer exists |
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| Transitional Feature/ Form |
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| trait in fossil species that is intermediate between those of older and younger species --> provides strong evidence for change through time |
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| living species "succeed" fossil species in same region |
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| reduced or incompletely developed structure that has no function or reduced function, but is clearly similar to functioning organs or structures in closely related species |
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1) similarity that exists in species because they both inherited the trait from a common ancestor
2) Three levels: genetic, developmental, structural |
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| similarity occurs in DNA sequences (ex. eyeless gene in fruit fly and Aniridia gene in humans) |
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| similarity recognized in embryos (ex. early chick, human & cat embryos have tails and structures called gill pouches) |
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| similarity in adult morphology (form) |
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1) change in allele frequencies in a population over time
2) change in characteristics of a population over time |
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| observation that data from independent sources agree in supporting predictions made by a theory |
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| Evolution by Natural Selection |
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| 1) Heritable variations lead to 2) differential reproductive success |
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| Four Postulates (Steps) in Evolution by Natural Selection |
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Definition
1) variation in population
2) trait differences are heritable
3) more offspring are produced than can survive
4) individuals with certain heritable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce |
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| situation in which groups to be compared are created by an unplanned, natural change in conditions rather than by manipulations of conditions by researchers |
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| describe changes in an individual's phenotype that occur in response to changes in environmental conditions (not passed on to offspring) |
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| compromise between traits , in terms of how those traits perform in environment |
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Definition
1) Natural Selection
2) Genetic Drift
3) Gene flow
4) Mutation |
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| all of the alleles of all the genes in a certain population |
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1) acts as null hypothesis when researches want to test whether evolution or nonrandom mating is occurring at a particular gene
2) for population to conform to this principle, none of the four mechanisms of evolution can be acting on the population |
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| Types of Natural Selection |
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Definition
1) Directional
2) Stabilizing
3) Disruptive
4) Balancing |
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| when average phenotype of populations changed in one direction (to one extreme) |
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| when disadvantageous alleles decline in frequency |
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| no change in average value of trait over time, and genetic variation in the population is reduced |
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| eliminates phenotypes with the average value and favors extreme phenotypes; sometimes plays a part in speciation |
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1) no single allele has distinct advantage and increases in frequency
2) occurs when there is heterozygote advantage, when environment varies over time, when rare alleles are favored |
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| heterozygous individuals have higher fitness than homozygous individuals do |
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| Frequency- dependent selection |
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| when certain alleles are favored when they are rare, but not when they are common |
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1) any change in allele frequency that is due to chance
2) random w/ respect to fitness
3) allele frequency changes not adaptive
4)can lead to random loss or fixation of alleles over time
5) more pronounced in small populations |
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| when allele frequencies change due to blind luck |
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| specific allele that causes a distinctive phenotype |
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| change in allele frequency that occurs when new population is established (type of genetic drift) |
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| sudden reduction in number of alleles in population |
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| sudden decrease in population, commonly caused by disease outbreaks and natural catastrophes |
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1) movement of alleles form one population to another; occurs when individuals leave one population, join another and breed
2) equalizes allele frequency between source and recipient population |
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| evolutionary mechanism that increases genetic diversity in populations; ultimate source of genetic variation |
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| alleles that lower fitness |
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| allele that allows individual to produce more offspring |
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1) mating between relatives
2) increases homozygosity
3) does not cause evolution |
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| decline in average fitness that takes place when homozygosity increase and heterozygosity decreases |
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| occurs when individuals within a population differ in their ability to attract mates; favors individuals with heritable traits that enhance their ability to obtain mates; causes evolution by increasing frequency of alleles associated with successful courtship |
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| Fundamental Asymmetry of Sex |
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| results from fact that, in most species, females usually invest more in their offspring than males do |
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| sexual selection should act more strongly on males than on females |
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| area that is actively defended and that provides exclusive use by owner |
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| refers to any trait that differs between males and females |
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| Earliest sign of life found in rocks |
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| splitting even that creates two or more distinct species from a single ancestral group |
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| evolutionarily independent population or groups of populations |
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| Biological Species Concept |
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1) critical criterion for identifying species is reproductive isolation
2) no gene flow occurs between populations that are reproductively isolated from each other |
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1) prevents individuals of different species from mating
2) temporal, habitat, behavioral, gametic barrier, mechanical |
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| offspring of matings between members of different species do no survive (viability) or reproduce (sterility) |
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| researchers identify evolutionarily independent lineages by differences in size, shape, or other form features |
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| differ in traits other than morphology |
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| Phylogenetic Species Concept |
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1) identifies evolutionarily independent lineages based on reconstructing the evolutionary history of populations
2) species are defined as smallest monophyletic groups on the tree of life |
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| consists of an ancestral population, all of its descendants, and only those descendants; aka clade or lineage |
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| trait found in certain groups of organisms that exists in no others |
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| Female Choice for "Good Alleles" |
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| when females choose mates on the basis of physical characteristics that signal male genetic quality |
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| Female Choice for Paternal Care |
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| when females prefer to mate with males that care for young or provide the resources required to produce eggs |
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| results in high variation in male reproductive success and lower variation in female reproductive success |
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| populations that live in discrete geographic areas and have distinguishing features, such as coloration or calls, but are not considered distinct enough to be called separate morphospecies |
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| study of how species and populations are distributed geographically |
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| speciation that begins with physical isolation via either dispersal or vicariance |
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| two or more populations live in different geographic areas |
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| physical isolation that occurs when a population moves into a new habitat, colonizes it, and forms new population |
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| physical isolation that occurs when a physical barrier splits a widespread population into subgroups |
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| happens routinely when populations become physically separated |
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| events during last ice age that are thought to be responsible for origin of modern species |
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| closely related species, which occupy adjacent branches in phylogenetic tree |
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| populations or species that line in the same geographic region |
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| speciation that occurs even though gene flow is possible due to polyploidy or isolation by habitat preferences |
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| the state of having more than two full sets of chromosomes; can cause speciation, particularly in plants; virtually instantaneous! |
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| Autopolyploid individuals |
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| produced when mutation results in doubling of chromosome number and the chromosomes all come from the same species |
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| Allopolyploid individuals |
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| created when parents that belong to different species mate and produce offspring where chromosome number doubles; have chromosome sets from different species |
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| offspring of parents from two different species (or populations) |
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| geographic area where interbreeding between two populations occurs and hybrid offspring are common |
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| selection for traits that isolate populations reproductively; sympatric species living in same area seldom willing to mate with one another |
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| gradient of morhpological, physiological, or genetic change in a group of related organisms usually along a line of environmental or geographic transition |
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