Term
| factors influencing enzyme activity (5) |
|
Definition
-temperature
-pH
-substrate concentration
-competitive inhibitors
-non-competitive inhibitors |
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Term
| temperature affects enzyme activity by |
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Definition
| increasing activity with increased temp to an optimum temp |
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Term
| pH affects enzyme activity by |
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Definition
| increased activity at optimum pH |
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Term
| substrate concentration affects enzyme activity by |
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Definition
| increased activity as substrate increases, til saturation |
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Term
| competitive inhibitor affects enzyme activity by |
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Definition
| binding to active site to physically block enzyme binding |
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Term
| non-competitive inbhibitor affects enzyme activity by |
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Definition
| binding to allosteric site to change shape of enzyme so active site is no longer available for substrate to bind |
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Term
|
Definition
| site separate from enzyme binding site that when non-competitive inhibitor binds, changes shape of enzyme so active site is no longer available for substrate to bind |
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Term
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Definition
| main part of enzyme; protein; inactive without co-factor |
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Term
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Definition
-activator
-non protein portion of enzyme reaction - vitamin or mineral |
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Term
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Definition
| active enzyme with cofactor intact |
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Term
|
Definition
end product for a pathway is also the inhibitor for the 1st enzyme in that pathway so that when product reaches necessary levels, pathway shuts down
-AKA negative feedback |
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Term
| general requirements for microbial metabolism (3) |
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Definition
-electron donor
-electron carrier
-electron acceptor |
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Term
|
Definition
-most ATP production (38 total ATP for prokaryote)
-includes glycolysis, Krebs cycle AND electron transport chain
-O2 is final electron acceptor |
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Term
|
Definition
-glucose is oxidized - splits from a 6C chain to two 3C chains (pyruvic acid)
-oxidation of glucose releases energy -net 2 ATP produced (no O2 involved)
-NAD+ is reduced to NADH
-occurs in cytoplasm
-anaerobic |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
transports high energy e-
-organic molecules |
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Term
|
Definition
| accept low energy e- after most of energy is used up |
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Term
|
Definition
1 glucose (donor)
2 NAD+ (carrier)
2 ATP (energy input)
4 ADP (to become ATP)
2 Phosphate |
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Term
|
Definition
2 pyruvic acid
2 NADH (carrier)
2 net ATP |
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Term
|
Definition
2 AcetylCoA
6 NAD+
2 FAD
2 ADP
2 Phosphate |
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Term
|
Definition
6 NADH
2 FADH2
2 ATP
4 CO2 (waste) |
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Term
| krebs cycle in prokaryotes |
|
Definition
occurs in cytoplasm
-does not directly require O2, but is considered aerobic
-produces 2 ATP |
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Term
| Electron transport chain in prokaryote |
|
Definition
occurs in cell membrane
-aerobic because O2 is final electron acceptor
-e- move along proteins in cell membrane causing H
Produces 34 ATP |
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Term
|
Definition
| creates ATP when H+ flows back into cell from higher gradient outside cell through oxidative phosphorylation |
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Term
| prokaryotic ATP yield from 1 glucose |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
final electron acceptor is NOT O2
electron donor can be organic or inorganic
electron carriers are NAD, FAD, FMN
ATP production is variable |
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Term
|
Definition
e- donor is organic molecule
e- carrier can be NAD, FAD, FMN
e- acceptor is organic (pyruvic acid) - as in glycolysis
ATP production is low |
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Term
| if O2 availability is low, many organisms use what for ATP production? |
|
Definition
| both aerobic respiration and fermentation |
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Term
| pyruvic acid is a substrate for |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| substrate level phosphorylation |
|
Definition
| phosphate added to ADP to produce ATP |
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Term
| oxidative phosphorylation |
|
Definition
| electrons pass through electron transport chain and ATP is formed through proton pump/ATP synthase |
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Term
|
Definition
glucose
pyruvate
acetylCoA
NADH
FADH2
ATP |
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Term
|
Definition
| gets rid of low energy e- |
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Term
| common fermentation products |
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Definition
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Term
| NADH produces how many ATp |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| FADH2 produces how many ATP |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation |
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Term
|
Definition
-DNA is replicated (duplicated)
-cell wall and cell membrane begin to constrict (to create a septum which divides DNA into two parts)
-cell walls close and cells separate
-parent cell becomes two daughter cells |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| the amount of time it takes a population to double |
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Term
| phases of bacterial growth |
|
Definition
-lag phase
-log phase
-stationary phase
-death phase |
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Term
|
Definition
| growth is not measureable because the numbers are still too small |
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Term
|
Definition
bacterial growth is exponential and measureable
bacteria are most metabolically active |
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Term
|
Definition
cell death is equal to cell growth
nutrients and waste products are limiting factors |
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Term
|
Definition
| cell death is exponential and greater than cell growth |
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Term
|
Definition
| a discrete colony on a growth plate - all cells in colony are clones |
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Term
| determine number of viable bacteria |
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Definition
-only count living cells "viable cell count)
-requires that you can separate cells to get accurate count
-types -plate count AND filtration |
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Term
| measuring cell count of both viable and dead cells |
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Definition
-direct count
-turbidity (specrophotometer) |
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Term
|
Definition
count cells under microscope
-allows us to see live VS dead cells |
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Term
|
Definition
-stationary phase culture - see how many colonies grow
-dilute broth culture (serial dilution) so that you no longer get confluent growth and can count individual colonies
-when growing cells on a plate, must use a known volume of broth so that you can calculate now many bacteria are in the original volume |
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Term
|
Definition
| -allows for minimal broth to be used to dilute significantly rather than needing liters and liters of solution |
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Term
|
Definition
-use known volume from dilution (usually 0.1 ml)
-use sterile glass rod to spread liquid on top of sterile media plate |
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Term
|
Definition
-use known volume from dilution (usually 0.1 ml)
-mix dilution with warm agar
-pour agar into plate
-can make bacteria harder to see since they're embedded in agar |
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Term
|
Definition
-bacteria get trapped on filter
-lay membrane on petrie dish to grow
-coliform bacteria turn red with indicator (shows fecal bacteria) |
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Term
|
Definition
use spectrophotometer to measure how much light gets through
-when calibrated through other counting methods, you can use scale of light to see how many cells are present (both alive and dead) |
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Term
| physical conditions that affect bacterial growth |
|
Definition
temperature
pH
oxygen availability
osmotic pressure
moisture |
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Term
|
Definition
| bacteria grow in pH under 5.4 |
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Term
|
Definition
| bacteria grow in pH 5.4-8.5 |
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Term
|
Definition
| bacteria grow in pH over 8.5 |
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Term
|
Definition
| -10 to 20 C; optimum 10 C |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| 70 to 110 C; optimum 95 C |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| slows growth of bacteria dramatically, but does not kill them |
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Term
| bacterial growth produces by-products that are |
|
Definition
acidic
-can kill bacteria - this is why we use a buffer in growth plates |
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Term
|
Definition
| produces plasmolysis (cell membrane shrinks away from cell wall when water leaves cell in hypertonic solution) |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
range: 0.85% to 15%
-can grow with hypertonicity) |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| range: must be over 15% up to 20% |
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Term
|
Definition
| can grow up to 5% but not well |
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Term
|
Definition
| grows most abundantly at 0.85% |
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Term
| osmotic pressure order of organism tolerance |
|
Definition
non-halophile
halotolerant
facultative halophile
obligate halophile
extreme halophile |
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|
Term
| order of organism tolerance (temperatiures) |
|
Definition
psychrophile
psychrotroph
mesophile
thermophile
extreme thermophile |
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Term
| which osmotic pressure is closest to the average biological cell? |
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Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
needs O2 to survive
-only on top of tube |
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Term
|
Definition
needs no O2 to survive
-only on bottom of tube |
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Term
|
Definition
prefers O2, but can adapt to grow without it
-grows anywhere, better on top |
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Term
|
Definition
loves a LITTLE O2
-grows in a band about 1/3 way down the tube |
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Term
|
Definition
prefers no O2, but can tolerate growth with O2
-grows anywhere, but better on bottom |
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Term
|
Definition
-heat food to kill microbes (canning)
-refridgerate food
-create hypertonic environment with salt or sugar
-limit air exposure
-use acid to limit microbe growth |
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Term
|
Definition
-anaerobic
-requires CO2 (found in gut and respiratory tract) |
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Term
| create anaerobic environment in a lab by |
|
Definition
sealing a jar and using a gas pack or candle
-burns off O2 and replaces it with CO2 |
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Term
| chemical requirements for bacterial growth |
|
Definition
-carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus
-trace elements and vitamins needed as cofactors |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| carbohydrates and proteins |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| proteins (disulfide bonds) |
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Term
|
Definition
| phospholipids (cell membranes); nucleic acids; ATP |
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Term
|
Definition
-details of whats in it are not precise - but there are nutrients
-TSA (tryptic soy agar)
-BHI (beef heart infusion) |
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Term
|
Definition
nutrients are added in a precise way so you know exactly what nutrients the bacteria are getting
-Mueller-Hinton |
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Term
|
Definition
| osmotic balance (isotonic, hypertonic) |
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Term
|
Definition
-conjugate acid and base
-buffers acid waste product that bacteria creates as it grows so that it can keep growing and not poison itself with the acid |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| has nutrients added so that cells that have little growth otherwise will grow more abundantly |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| NH4PO4 (ammonium phosphate) |
|
Definition
| provides nitrogen (nucleic acids and proteins) and phosphate (phospholipids, nucleic acids and ATP) |
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Term
| MgSO4 (magnesium sulfate) |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| KH2PO4 and K2HPO4 (potassium phosphate salts) |
|
Definition
| buffer (balance out acid waste from bacterial growth) |
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Term
|
Definition
limits growth to a particular type of organism
-ex: Mannitol Salts Agar |
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Term
|
Definition
| has indicator that turns the agar OR bacteria different colors (based on pH) |
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Term
|
Definition
| killing or removing all living organisms, including spores |
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Term
|
Definition
| reducing number of harmful microbes to safe levels |
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Term
|
Definition
| reducing number of harmful microbes to safe levels (less than disinfection) |
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Term
|
Definition
| product used to reduce number of harmful microbes to safe levels (on inanimate objects) |
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Term
|
Definition
| product used to reduce number of harmful microbes to safe levels (on living tissue) |
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Term
|
Definition
| removal but not necessarily killing microbes (on living tissue) |
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Term
|
Definition
| absence of unwanted contamination |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| efficiency of antimicrobial agents depends on (5) |
|
Definition
-# of microbes initially present
-time of exposure to antimicrobial
-temperature
-organic matter (fat) blocks disinfectants
-biofilms |
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Term
| physical methods of controling microbial growth (8) |
|
Definition
-moist heat
-dry heat
-pasteurization
-filtration
-low temperatures
-dessication
-osmotic pressure
-radiation |
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Term
|
Definition
-boiling
-autoclave
needs enough time for heat to penetrate entire object |
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Term
|
Definition
-energy intensive
-burns away living material
-good for glass/metal |
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Term
|
Definition
| -raise temp high enough to kill bacteria without changing taste of food |
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Term
|
Definition
-filter traps microbes
-0.2 to 0.4 micrometers
-use with liquids that are heat unstable |
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Term
|
Definition
-bacteriostatic, NOT bacteriocidal
-fridge = 4C
-freezer = -20C
-ice crystals can damage cells, but not reliably kill |
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Term
|
Definition
drying
-bacteriostatic NOT bacteriocidal |
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Term
|
Definition
freeze-drying
-can be used to preserve yeast or probiotics |
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Term
|
Definition
-high salt or sugar
-molds and yeasts are more resistant than bacteria
-used for food |
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Term
|
Definition
-gamma rays or electrons
-mutates bacteria by breaking chemical bonds in DNA
-water is ionized to form free radicals |
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Term
|
Definition
-UV radiation
-germicidal lights
-mutates DNA - Thymine dimers |
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Term
| chemical control of microbes that target proteins (6) |
|
Definition
-acids/bases
-oxidizing agents
-halogens - chlorine (oxidize)
-heavy metals
-alkylating agents (donate methyl group)
-formaldehyde (cross link protein) |
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|
Term
| chemical control of microbes that target cell membranes (2) |
|
Definition
-surfactants (break lipid bilayer)
-detergents (wash away microbes) |
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Term
| physical methods that sterilize (3) |
|
Definition
-filtration
-moist heat
-radiation |
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Term
|
Definition
| 1st disinfectant - dentaures protein |
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Term
|
Definition
-disrupt plasma membrane
-denature proteins/inactivate enzymes |
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Term
|
Definition
chlorine
-alters amino acids chains and fatty acid chains |
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Term
|
Definition
-denatures protein
-disrupts lipid bilayer
-does not kill endospores |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| cross link protein w covalent bonds |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| denatures protein by breaking disulfide bonds |
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Term
|
Definition
science of heredity
-study of genes, how they carry information, how they're replicated and how they're expressed |
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Term
|
Definition
| physical characteristics of an organism |
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Term
|
Definition
| genetic information (DNA that determines amino acid sequence) |
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Term
|
Definition
-sugar phosphate backbone
-sugar (deoxyribose) is 5-sided ring
-nitrogenous bases (ACGT) |
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Term
|
Definition
contain DNA that carry information
-is supercoiled within cell
-bacteria have single circular chromosome |
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Term
|
Definition
segment of DNA that codes for a specific protein
-order of nucleotides in DNA determines order of amino acids in protein |
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Term
|
Definition
sequence of nucleotides
and set of rules about how the nucleotides are converted to proteins |
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Term
|
Definition
DNA to DNA
-occurs before cells can divide so that each daughter cell has DNA
-hydrogen bonds unzip; DNA polymerase reads single DNA strand and matches base paired nucleotides - hydrogen bonds these to original DNA strand; DNA polymerase creates covalent bonds between nucleotides creating Okazaki fragments; as DNA polymerase moves on to next nucleotide, the DNA ligase joins Okasaki fragments
-DNA strands formed are antiparallel (5' and 3' ends are opposite each other)
-old strand is read 3' to 5'; new strand grows 5' to 3'
-leading strand is copied continuously because it grows in the right direction; lagging strand is copied in fragments opposite the direction that it unzips (Okasaki fragments) which then get joined through DNA ligase |
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Term
|
Definition
DNA to RNA
-DNA strands separate; RNA polymerase begins at promoter (intitiation site/instructions); RNA polymerase pulls appropriate RNA nucleotides to hydrogen bond with DNA nucleotides and then covalently bonds them together; RNA peels away so DNA base pairs can link up again; termination happens at terminator codon |
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Term
|
Definition
RNA to protein (protein synthesis)
-ribosome sits down on mRNA; two codons within ribosome (in P site and A site); tRNA bind to each codon; ribosime forms peptide bonds between the amino acids linked to each tRNA; first tRNA is released and ribosome moves to next codon; repeat; stop at stop codon - DNA and mRNA separate |
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Term
|
Definition
A pairs with T
C pairs with G |
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Term
|
Definition
A(DNA) pairs with U(RNA)
T(DNA) pairs with A(RNA)
C pairs with G |
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Term
| how are base pairs held together |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| semiconservative replication |
|
Definition
| new double stranded DNA has one old and one new strand of DNA |
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Term
|
Definition
| segment of DNA on lagging strand of DNA in replication - joined later by DNA ligase |
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Term
|
Definition
| set of 3 nucleotides that code for a specific amino acid |
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Term
|
Definition
OH group end
-this is the end where nucleotides can be added |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| antiparallel strands of DNA |
|
Definition
| two strands are complimentary based paired in opposite directions |
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|
Term
| leading strand in DNA replication |
|
Definition
| DNA is copied continuously reading from 3' end towards 5' end (copy is growing 5' to 3') |
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|
Term
| lagging strand in DNA replication |
|
Definition
must be copied opposite from direction that DNA is unzipping
-DNA polymerase is copied in segments (called Okasaki fragments)
-DNA ligase connects fragments |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| links Okasaki fragments on lagging strand |
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Term
|
Definition
| sets down primer before DNA polymerase can begin copying; on lagging strand this must happen before EACH Okasaki fragment |
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|
Term
| central dogma (flow of genetic information) (3) |
|
Definition
-recombination - genetic information can be transferred between cells of same generation
-expression - genetic infortmation is used to produce proteins
-replication - genetic information is duplicated and cells split from parent to daughter |
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Term
|
Definition
| start codon codes for Methionine |
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Term
|
Definition
mRNA (messenger)
tRNA (transfer)
rRNA (ribosomal) |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
carries amino acids to ribosome
connects amino acid to codon
stem and loop structure - stem=short stretches of base pairing within tRNA; loop=short stretches of nucleotides that are not paired
has anticodon - complimentary 3 nucleotide sequence that matching with codon |
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Term
|
Definition
| complimentary 3 nucleotide sequence that matching with codon |
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Term
|
Definition
| structural part of ribosome |
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