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| social learning can lead to the |
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| the same therapeutic outcome can be achieved |
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| with partial reinforcement (lower doses of an active treatment) |
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| partial reinforcement is more |
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| what are the two theories for placebo effects? |
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| Expectancy (Kirsch) and Classical Conditioning (Wickramasekera) |
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| what theory assumes that there is extinction for the placebo effect |
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| classical condition (the CS on its own will weaken the CS-US association) |
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| what theory assumes that there is NOT extinction for the placebo effect |
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Definition
| expectancy (response expectancies are self-reinforcing) |
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| placebo effects in the direction of suggestion independent of what the conditioning was |
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| placebo effects only when there is conditioning even when there is contradictory evidence from the suggestion |
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| for hormones (nonconscious) |
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| suggestion outweighs conditioning |
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| suggestion and experience create response expectancies & they can produce placebo effects in and of themselves |
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| Classical conditioning theory |
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| through repeated context (CS) and drug (US) pairings, the context acquires the ability to elicit a therapeutic effect (CR) in and of itself |
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| learned response which involves conscious and unconscious thinking |
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| expectancy and conditioning together |
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| produced a stronger placebo effect than separately |
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| pain decreases much sooner when |
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| subject was informed/aware |
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| a kind of reporting bias where a subject feels like they need to provide some kind of response that the experimenter is looking for |
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| a kind of reporting bias where we rate symptoms differently in the presence of others |
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| do not account for the placebo effect (maid example) |
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| the act of being observed can affect behavior |
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| duration of illness, occasionally will have spontaneous remission or random fluctuations but generally is a bell curve |
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| illness follow the same course of its natural history; placebo has no effect |
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| illness follows shortened course as a result of the placebo |
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| sugar pill & saline injection |
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| drugs that mimic side effects of active actual drugs |
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| negative expectancies & negative outcomes |
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| positive expectancies & positive outcomes |
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| 4 sensory receptors that contribute to flavor are |
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| taste, odor, texture, and trigeminal |
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| via channel at the back of the throat |
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| hedonic reactions to odors are |
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| flavor is determined mostly by |
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| only humans have both nausea-based taste aversion and |
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| social learning is important for |
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| acquiring flavor preferences/aversions (rats/humans) |
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| only humans appear to develop preferences for |
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Definition
| initially high aversive tastes (chilli/tonic) |
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| sucrose pre-exposure strengthens sweetness-calorie association so that this blocks |
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Definition
| flavor-calorie learning (rats learn that sweetness is associated with nutrients, not almond flavoring) |
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| when rats are pre-exposed to saccharin, they are more likely to |
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| learn that flavor is associated with nutrients (latent inhibition for calories so weakens overshadowing for flavor by weakness) |
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| non-nutritive sweeteners weaken |
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| sweet-calorie associations so that individuals compensate less fully after eating sweet foods |
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| groups with saccharin often |
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| eat more and gain more weight |
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| color-taste (contingency learning) |
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| AKA hedonic learning, occurs without awareness, doesn't extinguish, depends on contiguity between CS & US but not contingency |
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| most humans and mammals react positively to |
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| all react positively to salt |
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| when sodium deprived but not otherwise |
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| alkaloids, many of which are poisonous |
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| food becomes acidic as they deteriorate so many animals dislike |
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| discovered CTA AKA Garcia effect |
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| when an animal ingests a poisonous substance and avoids consuming it again; WW2 rat example |
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| radiation-induced sickness |
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| disturbed eating in rats after Hiroshima |
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| protection from outside harm |
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| protection from inside harm (over-ingesting toxins) |
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| animals that only eat one safe food should not |
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| show food aversion learning (vampire bats) |
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| stimulus-selectivity in CTA |
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| sickness associated with tastes but hardly with audio-visual: for effects to occur, must be the same sense (flashing light/buzzing noise & shock or lithium and saccharin) |
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| requires strong, novel taste followed by intense sickness |
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| long delay learning can be prevented by |
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| interference from other tastes (overshadowing) |
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| 1-trial learning depends on |
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| the stimulus being novel and strong, very adverse (life or death) - very rarely happens...cause they will die |
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| conditioning (latent inhibition) |
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| taste switches odor into the gut-defense system, learns bad smelling things will probably be poisonous |
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| 2nd order conditioning whereby odor & taste become |
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| strongly associated so that odor "reminds" the animal of the averted taste; converse to Garcia "gate" hypothesis |
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| only upper gastro-intestinal illness conditions |
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| lower gastro-intestinal illness |
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| does not show disgust, instead learns to avoid things that cause this illness; CTA |
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| taste reactivity test shows |
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| "gaping" in rats (basically incipient vomit response) |
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| independence of CTA from cognition is |
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| especially high in humans |
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| time between experiences must be fast |
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| order of experiences must be consistent |
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| perception of causation arises from |
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| our sensory input contains |
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| no direct information about causation (we must deduce this ourselves) |
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| apply previous knowledge and experience (example of the ball in a C with the ball continuing in a circular motion - false) |
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| to what extent does performance of action dictate an outcome? |
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| overestimation of causation particularly when the |
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| probability of the outcome is already high |
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| sequences of events are transformed to conceptual entities via cognitive operations (identifying cause/effects) |
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| animals may not understand causation but |
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| can learn to anticipate outcomes |
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| consequences are "brought to mind" by association |
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| lever press likely to lead to food, no lever press unlikely to lead to food |
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| lever press and no lever press equally likely to lead to food |
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| Dickinson, Shanks, & Eveden - tank experiment |
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Definition
| groups that were "blocked" had more accurate ratings in comparison to controls...whatever |
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| retrospective revaluation |
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Definition
| typically weaker than "forward" effects, especially in more complex tasks...."backward" blocking.... |
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| forward and backward blocking are enhanced by |
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| encouraging assumptions of outcome additivity |
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| basis of meaning (semantics vs. phonetics - semantics wins) |
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| awareness may be unnecessary for conditioning if |
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Definition
| the US immediately follows the CS+ |
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| US begins at the end of the CS |
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| delay conditioning occurs in |
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| aware, unaware, and amnesiacs...probably because they are overlapping |
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| trace conditioning only occurs |
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| when the participant is aware |
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| awareness testing is highly complex and |
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| difficult to replicate...not the best experiment |
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| there is not overly convincing evidence that conditioning can occur wihtout |
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Definition
| awareness...this is related to the fact that it is difficult to determine what is or is not "aware" |
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| consists of semantic and episodic memory; supports CONSCIOUS retrieval of facts and events |
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| consists of skills, priming, dispositions, and nonassociative memory; "procedural" memory, automatic, unconscious, skill acquisition and conditioned motor skills |
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| motor, cognitive, perceptual and adaption levels |
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| perceptual and semantic, biases in judgement and preferences |
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| non-declarative dispositions |
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Definition
| simple classical conditioning |
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| non-declarative nonassociative |
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| habituation & sensitization |
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Definition
| learning via co-activation |
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| Non-propositional learning |
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Definition
| BOTTOM-UP: co-activation, "Hebbian synapses', doesn't involve symoblic representation, CS-US links generate behavior, doesn't require conscious expectancy or control of action |
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| TOP-DOWN: symbolic, implies conceptual processing of events, stimuli --> cognitive operations (symbolic though) --> knowledge in memory |
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| single-process models of learning |
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| propositional, learned responses are mediated by conscious expectancy...you only show a conditioned response if there is a conscious expectancy |
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Definition
| a single (propositional) process could account for vast majority of the data...great |
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| best evidence that conditioned responding may not be governed by conscious predictions, eye blink conditioning, |
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| many forms of learned behavior are controlled by the |
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Definition
| explicit beliefs of the individual including conscious cognitive processes |
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