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LCA - Heart and Incisions
good luck
128
Medical
Undergraduate 4
06/18/2017

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Cards

Term
name the 5 main scars you would see in an upper chest
Definition
midline sternotomy
pacemaker scar : left side beneath clavicle
left anterolateral thoracotomy: for open chest massage
posteriorlateral thoracotomy: most common for pulmonary resections
axillary thoracotomy: muscle sparing approach
Term
how you you differentiate open heart surgery and CABG?
Definition
ask to see the leg for vein harvesting
Term
left anterolateral thoracotomy is used for what in open heart surgery?
Definition
open chest massage
Term
name of the scar for removal of gall bladder?
Definition
Kocher scar, made inferior and parallel to costal margin
Term
whats the difference between chevron rooftop and mercedes benz scar?
Definition
chevroof top is like a triangle without the bottom line. used for gastrectomy, oesophagectomy, bilateral adrenelectomy.

mercedes benz scar is chevron rooftop with incision and break into the xphisternum. used for hiatus hernias
Term
for renal surgery you would see a scar in the loin like a hockey stick scar. what is the name of the scar where a transplanted kidney is inserted and what is this scar an extension of?
Definition
name of the scar is Rutherford-Morrison scar it is an extension of the Lanz scar which is used for appendectomy and incision is made at mcburneys point.
Term
to fix an AAA what incision would you make?
Definition
A midline laparotomy incision
Term
Aortic stenosis
causes
Definition
Senile calcification: most common
Congenital
Bicuspid valve in Turners syndrome
Rheumatic Fever
Term
Which triad of symptoms might someone with Aortic stenosis report?
Definition
Extertional Dyspnoea
Syncope
Angina
Term
Pathology of Aortic stenosis?
Definition
narrowing of aortic valve in the heart
stops carotid outflow
limited CO
LV hypertrophy
Term
describe the murmur of Aortic stenosis and other associated signs
Definition
ejection systolic murmur radiates to carotids
best heard at right sternal edge, carotids and apex

signs:
slow rising pulse
narrow pulse pressure
heaving apex beat: not displaced
soft/absent S2
LVH, S3, pulmonary oedema
Term
diagnosis of Aortic stenosis
Definition
auscultation to ID murmur
CXR: calcification around aortic valve
ECG: may show LVH
echo: confirms diagnosis
cardiac catheterisation: to assess severity of stenosis
Term
mx of aortic stenosis?
Definition
conservative: if mild you may not need rx
medications: ACE-i to reduce amount of work the heart does. Diuretics if you are breathless.
surgery: advised when symptoms develop as studies show that once symptoms develop the average survival is 2-3 years if untreated.
Term
Surgical options in aortic stenosis
Definition
Valvotomy: widens the valve and needs open heart surgery
Replacement: also open heart surgery with a mechanical or tissue valve
Valvulpplasty: stretching the stenosed valve: does not need open heart surgery. A catheter is used to inflated the stenosed valve. usually reserved for those who are unsuitable for open heart surgery.
Term
from the 3 surgical options for valve replacement in aortic stenosis which one does not require open heart surgery?

Valvotomy
valve replacement
valvulopasty
Definition
valvuloplasty, the other 2 need open heart surgery.
Term
complications of Aortic stenosis?
Definition
Heart failure
infective endocarditis
Term
list features of aortic sclerosis and how you would differentiate it from aortic stenosis?
Definition
it is also an ejection systolic murmur but it does not radiate to carotids
there are no symptoms and no abnormal signs
the most common cause is: senile calcification

pathology: valve is hard and inflexible. there is thickening NOT narrowing therefore the sound is due to turbulence and it is local only.
Term
what is the difference between A2 sound in aortic stenosis versus aortic sclerosis?
Definition
the A2 is soft in Aortic stenosis
in aortic sclerosis it is normal or loud
Term
in aortic stenosis if congestive heart failure leads to a fall in CO then what will happen to the murmur?
Definition
it will be quieter
Term
Mitral Regurge causes
Definition
post MI papillary muscle dysfunction
dilated cardiomyopathy: alcoholics
Rheumatic disease
infective endocarditis
congenital
connective tissue disorders eg Marfan's
Term
symptoms of mitral regurg
(PDF)
Definition
Palpitations
dyspnoea
fatigue
Term
murmur and sign of mitral regurge
Definition
pan systolic murmur heard at apex
radiates to axilla

signs:
AF
displaced apex beat (vol overload)
LVF (S3, pulmonary oedema)
pulmonary HTN: RV heave and loud P2
Term
pathology of mitral regurge?
Definition
regurgitation to LA
causing LA dilatation then LV dilatation and failure

IF acute LA pressure increases causing pulmonary oedema
Term
associations of mitral regurg
Definition
female sex
lower BMI
advanced age
prior MI

not related to diabetes and dyslipideamia
Term
which form of mitral regurge needs urgent valve repair? acute or chornic?
Definition
acute: this leads to rapid pulmonary oedema that is life threatening and needs emergency valve repair.

chronic mitral regurge is well tolerated but dilation of the LV eventually causes heart failure and breathlessness
Term
investigations in mitral regurg
Definition
CXR: enlarged LA and LV
ECG: broad P wave of LA enlargement
Echo: essential to confirm diagnosis and severity
Term
in mitral regurg severity of the condition must be assessed in all patients because the grade of severity determines prognosis. how is the grade assessed?
Definition
defined by the regurgitant jet into the LA
Term
management of mitral regurg
Definition
serial testing:
asymptomatic pts with moderate MR and preserved LV fx can be followed up on a yearly basis with echo done every 2 years.

asymptomatic patients with severe MR and preserved LV function should be seen every 6 months and echo done annually.

medical
(in acute MR): nitrates, diuretics, intra aortic balloon pump
when HF develops: ACE-i in those with severe symptoms and not suitable for surgery. beta blockers and spirinolactone are also suitable

surgery: repair or replacement. in severe MR repair is preferred over replacement as it has a lower periop mortality and improved survival
Term
complications of MR
Definition
pulmonary HTN
LV dysfunction
AF and thromboembolism due to AF
Term
differentiate the murmur of MR and mitral valve prolapse?
Definition
MR: pan systolic murmur
Mitral valve prolapse: mid systolic click with late systolic murmur
Term
pathology of mitral valve prolapse?
Definition
in ventricular systole, a mitral valve prolapses into the left atrium
Term
mitral regurg murmur goes from the apex to the axilla. describe the murur of mitral valve prolapse?
Definition
apex to axilla and back
Term
symptoms of mitral valve prolapse?
Definition
atypical chest pain.

associations: primary congenital, Marfan's, PKD, congenital heart disease, congestive cardiomyopathy, SLE, HOCM, osteogenesis imperfecta,
Term
ix in mitral valve prolpase?
Definition
echo: shows prolapse
ECG/CXR: usually normal unless they has been progression to significant mitral regurge
24 hours ECG to detect arrhythmias
Term
mx of mitral valve prolapse?
Definition
conservatve: follow the pts up
autonomic symptos: beta blockers and abstinence from coffee, alcohol and cigarettes

surgery: repair or replace. repair preferred over replacement
Term
if valves are on the left hand side then they are louder when?
Definition
on expiration
Term
causes of tricuspid regurg
Definition
RV dilatation in pulmonary HTN (chronic lung disease or left heart/valve disease)
Rheumatic
infective endocarditis in IVDU
Ebsteins anomaly if split S1 and S2
Term
symptoms of tricuspid regurg?
Definition
fatigue
hepatic pain on exertion
ascites, pulmonary eodema
Term
where is the murmur of tricuspid regurg best heard?
the murmur is a pansystolic murmur
Definition
lower left sternal edge
Term
signs of tricuspid regurg?
Definition
Giant V waves in JVP (giants JVP waves without RVF = tricuspid regurg)
pulsatile hepatomegaly
parasternal heave if severe
Term
pathology of tricuspid regurg?
Definition
there is regurgitation to the RA and systemic backflow
Term
investigations in tricuspid regurg
Definition
ECG: RA hypertrophy with peaked P waves, arryhtmias
CXR: cardiomegaly, right heart enlargement with plural effusions
echo: to detect and quantify tricuspid regurg
cardiac magnetic resonance: when available is the preffered method to evaluate right ventricular size and fx
cardiac catheterisation: assess for CAD prior to surgery
Term
mx of tricuspid regurg?
Definition
rx underlying condition eg Abx for IE
rx arrythmias
mx of HF
surgery: ring annuloplasty or valve replacement
Term
left sided valve murmurs are better heard on....

right sided valves are better heard on...
Definition
left sisde: expiration (aortic and mitral)

right sided: better heard on inspiration (tricuspid and pulmonary)
Term
most common cause of pulmonary stenosis?
when is the murmur heard and where?
Definition
congenital is most common cause (Fallots, Noonans, intrauterine rubella)
ejection systolic murmur heard at upper left sternal edge. it goes to the back.
Term
pathology, signs and symptoms of pulmonary stenosis
Definition
the stenosis stops pulmonary outflow leading to RV hypertrophy

signs:
RV heave and dysmorphic face

symptoms:
dyspnoea, fatigue, ascites and oedema.
Term
causes of mitral stenosis?
Definition
rheumatic
congenital causes (parachute valve)
rheumatoid arthritis, amyloid deposition in the mitral valve
Term
symptoms of mitral stenosis?
Definition
dyspnoea
Fatigue
heamoptysis
chest pain
Term
signs of mitral stenosis on examination?
Definition
Malar flush due to low CO
AF
Tapping apex
Loud S1
pulmonary HTN (RV heave, loud P2)
Term
murmur of mitral stenosis?
Definition
opening snap with mid diastolic rumble
best heard in the apex with pt in left lateral position
Term
systolic murmurs radiate whilst diastolic mumurs need to be accentuated. how can you accentuate the murmur of mitral stenosis and aortic regurg?
Definition
mitral stenosis? pt on left lateral position in expiration. use bell.

aortic regurg: sitting forwards with breath held in expiration. use bell.
Term
pathology in mitral stenosis?
Definition
there is high LA pressure causing pulmonary HTN.
this causes RV hypertrophy then tricuspid regurge and then RH failure is a late complication.
Term
ix in mitral stenosis?
Definition
CXR: LA enlargement and interstitial oedema
mitral valve calcification may be seen
ECG: AF, LA enlargement and RV hypertrophy
Echo:assesses severity and allows other valves to be assessed as MS is associated with other valve diseases.
Term
mx of mitral stenosis?
Definition
conservative: asymptomatic pts with follow up and acho
medical: diuretics and long acting nitrates for SOB. beta blockers or rate limiting ca channel blockers can improve exercise tolerence
anticoagulant for those with AF

surgery: percutaneous mitral commissurotomy (PMC)
mitral valve replacement
Term
complications of mitral stenosis?
Definition
pulmonary HTN
dilated LA
AF
thromboembolic events
RHF
rheumatic fever
Term
what imaging is recommended before performing PMC?
Definition
transoesophageal echo to look for left atrial thrombus. if thrombus is found they need to be anticoagulated for 3 months or alternative path pursued
Term
causes of aortic regurge?
can be split into chronic and acute
Definition
chronic:
Rheumatic heart disease
Luetic heart disease (syphillis)
CT disorders (Marfan's, Ankylosing Spond)
congenital
long standing HTN

acute:
aortic dissection
infective endocarditis
Term
symptoms of aortic regurge?
Definition
Ftaigue
SOB
palpitations
Term
signs of aortic regurge on examination?
Definition
wide pulse pressure
collapsing pulse
displaced apex

backflow signs:
Corrigans pulse: carotids
De Mussets: head nodding
Quinke's: pulsations in nails

austin flint murmur: apical diastolic rumble
Term
murmur of aortic regurge. how to accentuate it?
Definition
Early diastolic murmur, sounds like a breath
best heard in right sternal edge

accentuate: sit pt forward and breath held in expiration, best heard in left sternal edge when sitting forwards.
Term
pathology of aortic regurge?
Definition
systemic backflow
Term
when would you hear the murmur of tricuspid stenosis?
Definition
early diastolic at the lower left sternal edge

signs: giant a wave and slow Y descent on JVp
Term
pulmonary regurge murmur?
Definition
early diastolic heard at upper left sternal edge
Term
heart failure definition
Definition
a clinical syndrome characterised by
symptoms, signs and objective evidence of structural/functional abnormality of the heart at rest
Term
example of symptoms
signs and objective evidence of heart failure
Definition
symptoms: SOB, fatigue, ankle swelling
signs: tahycardia, tacypnoea, pleural effusion, hepatomegaly, raised JVP

objective evidence: 3rd heart sound, cardiac murmur, echo abnormalities, raised BNP
Term
how can HF be classified?
Definition
acute/chronic
systolic/diastolic
high/low output
Term
define systolic heart failure

causes of systolic heart failure
Definition
there is a reduction in contractility of ventricles

causes:
heart dysfunction: IHD, cardiomyopathy, constrictive eg tamponade, pericarditis

valvular dysfunction
outflow resistance: systemic HTN and pulmonary HTN
Term
define HF with preserved ejection fraction

causes?
Definition
there is reduced compliance of ventricles e.g stiff ventricles

this usually occurs in older HTN pts
Term
symptoms of HF can be due to:-
reduced perfusion
pulmonary congestion
systemic congestion

name some
Definition
reduced perfusion: fatigue and exercise tolerance reduced

pulmonary congestion (LVF): orthopnoea, PND, pink frothy sputum, cardiac wheeze and nocturnal cough

systemic congestion: peripheral oedema and weight gain
Term
sings of HF can also be split into
reduced perfusion
systemic congestion
pulmonary congestion

name some
Definition
reduced perfusion: cyanosis, tacypnoea, tachycardia

pulmonary congestion: pleural effusions, S3 ventricular gallop, pulmonary oedema.

systemic congestion: raised JVP, peripheral oedema, hepatomegaly, ascites.
Term
ix in HF
Definition
Bloods (FBC for anemia, UE check renal function, BNP)
CXR: ABCDE
ECG: ventricular hypertrophy
Echo: diagnostic
Term
CXR in HF
what does ABCDE stand for?
Definition
A: alveolar shadowing (Bats wings)
B: B lines of interstitial oedema
C: cardiomegaly
D: diversion to upper lobes
E: effusion
Term
mx of HF?
Definition
acute mx
medical mx
surgical ICD
Term
mx of acute HF?
Definition
oxygen
diuretics
opiates
vasodilators
inotropi agents
CPAP
ultrafiltration
mechinical ciculatory assistance eg intra aortic balloon counterpulsation
Term
drugs that have shown to improve mortality in chronic HF?
Definition
ACE-i
spirinolactone
beta blockers
hydralazine with nitrates
Term
medical mx of HF?
Definition
1st line: ACE-i and beta blcoker
2nd line: aldosterone antagonist, ARB or hydralazine with nitrate
3rd line: digoxin or cardiac resynchronisation therapy
alternative is Ivabradine
Term
criteria for giving ivabradine to someone with HF?
Definition
pt is already on suitable ACE-I, beta blocker and aldosterone antagonist
HR is > 75
LVEF is < 35%
Term
as well as medical management for chronic HF what vaccinations should they be offered?
Definition
annual influenza and
one off pnuemococcal vaccine.
Term
a patient presents with symptoms of HF. what would your next management steps depend on?
Definition
if they have had a previous MI.

if yes: arrange echo within 2 weeks
if no previous MI: measure BNP. if BNP high then echo in 2 weeks. if BNP levels are raised then echo within 6 weeks
Term
what is BNP?
Definition
a hormone produced mainly by the left ventricular myocardium in response to strain.
Term
S1 features?
Definition
due to closure of tricuspid and mitral valve
loud in mitral stenosis
soft in mitral regurg
Term
S2 features
Definition
closure of aortic and pulmonary valves
soft in aortic stenosis
splitting during inspriration is normal
Term
S3 is caused by?
Definition
diastolic filling of ventricle

found in LVF, mitral regurge an pericarditis
Term
S4 due to?
Definition
atrial contraction against a stiff ventricle

may be heard in aortic stenosis, HOCM and HTN.
Term
grades of HF?
Definition
new york classification

grade 1: no symptoms
grade 2: sob on normal activity
grade 3: sob on less than normal activity
grade 4: sob at rest
Term
non pharmacological mx in HF?
Definition
cardiac resynchronisation therapy
ICD
Term
indications for ICD?
Definition
previous ventricular arrhythmia causing MI/compromise
previous ven arryhtmia and LVEF <35%
familial condition with high risk of sudden death
previous surgical repair of congenital heart disease
Term
PAD features
Definition
calf pain on exertion, releived by rest

check claudication distance
Term
acute limb ischemia? 6Ps
Definition
pale
pulseless
paraesthesia
paralysis
pain
perishingly cold
Term
symptoms and sign of critical ischemia?
Definition
rest pain: in night. relieved by hanging legs over bed
tissue loss: arterial ulcers, gangrene
Term
ix in PAD?
Definition
ABPI: 0.9-1.2 is normal. <0.5 severe disease. < 0.3 critical ischaemia

imaging:-
duplex USS 1st line
MR or CT angiography
catheter angiography
Bloods: lipids, glucose, FBC to rule out anemia
Term
mx of PAD?
Definition
risk factor control:
antiplatelet - clopidogrel
lower lipids: statins
smoking cessation
diet, weight mx and exercise
BP and DM control

supervised exercise regime for intermittent claudication.
Naftidofuryl oxalate: vasodilator

surgery: percutaneous angioplasty, vascular bypass graft, stenting

amputation: for gangrene.
Term
types of AF?
Definition
first detected
paroxysmal
persistent
permanent
Term
symptoms of AF?
Definition
Palpitations
dyspnoea
chest pain
TIA
Term
signs of AF?
Definition
Irregularly irregular pulse
Term
ix for AF?
Definition
ECG or 24 hour ambulatory if paroxysmal AF suspected

bloods: TFT, FBC for anemia as it can precipitate HF. renal fx as electrolyte imbalances can cause arryhtmias,
CXR: cardiac structural causes eg mitral valve disease.
Echo: baseline echo good for long term management
CT or MRI if pt presents with stroke or TIA
Term
rate and rhythm control in AF. rate control is preferred except for which situations?
Definition
if AF has reversible cause
if pt has HF due to AF
new onset AF
if a rhythm control strategy would be more suitable based on clinical judgement.
Term
rate control in AF what to use?
Definition
1st line: monotherapy beta blocker or rate limiting ca channel blocker
for sedentary people with non paroxysmal AF consider digoxin monotherapy

if monotherapy cannot control symptoms then consider a combination with any of the 2 following

beta blocker
diltiazam
digoxin
Term
rhythm control in AF cardioversion
Definition
if AF has persisted for > 48hours.
give amiodarone therapy 4 weeks before cardioversion and continue for up to 12 months after cardioversion to maintain sinus rhythm
Term
drug rx for rhythm control
Definition
beta blockers
dronedarone:
amiodaraone if LV impairement or HF
do not give flecanide or other class 1c antiarrythmics to pts with known coronary/ structural heart disease.

pill in pocket: infrequent paroxysms
Term
surgical mx in AF?
Definition
left atrial ablation and pacing
Term
thromboembolism prophylaxis in AF?
Definition
CHA2DS2VASc = offer if 1 in male and 2 in female

HASBLED = risk of bleeding in people who are starting or have started anticoagulation

NOACS: rivaroxaban, apixiban
Term
in people with AF > 48 hours that are undergoing cardioversion how long should you delay it for and why?
Definition
delay until they have been maintained on therapeutic anticoagulation for 3 weeks and during this period offer rate control as appropiate
Term
new onset AF with heamodynamic instability what is first line mx?
Definition
emergency electrical cardioversion
Term
complications of AF?
Definition
stroke
acute HF
Term
causes of AF
Definition
coronary heart disease
rheumatic heart disease
HTN
hyperthyroid
Term
define angina
Definition
chest pain or discomfort caused by heart muscle not getting enough blood. this is due to narrowing of the coronary arteries.

stable angina: chest pain on exertion
unstable angina: chest pain on rest, should be managed as an acs
Term
risk factors for angina
Definition
family history
cardiovascular disease
htn
diabetes melitus
aortic stenosis
obesity
lack of exercise
Term
features of anginal pain
Definition
constricting discomfort in chest, neck, shoulders, jaw or arms
precipitated by physical exertion
relieved by GTN or rest in 5 mins
Term
define prinzmetals angina
Definition
occurs at rest
circadian pattern
most episodes occur in the early hours of the morning
Term
ix in angina
Definition
ECG: may show ischemic changes or changes suggestive of CAD
FBC: exclude anemia
UE: check renal fx and electrolytes
blood glucose: if diabetes status unknown
triglycerides and fasting cholesterol
cardiac enzymes and troponin in unremitting prolonged pain
echo: if you suspect valvuar causes.
Term
mx of acute angina
Definition
stop what you are doing and rest
take GTN, then again 5 mins after and once again another 5 mins after.
if pain has not subsided after 15 mins call 999
Term
mx of stable angina
Definition
modify risk factors: smoking cessation, control diabetes, exercise, loose weight, diet, alcohol
medical: GTN for rapid symptom releif
1st line: beta blocker OR calcium channel blocker
if one doesn't work, consider the other or both.
2nd line: add long acting nitrate, ivabradine or ranolazine.

types of calcium channel blockers to use: amlodipne, nifedipine, felodipine
Term
SE of using nicorandil as monotherpy in angina?
Definition
ulceration.

if calcium channel blockers and beta blockers are contraindicated then mono therapy can be used:

long acting nitrate
ivabradine
ranolazine
Term
summary of stable angina mx>
Definition
life style modifications
medications
PCI
surgery
Term
medication mx of stable angina.

if pt is on 2 drugs you should only add a 3rd drug whilst they are waiting for PCI or CABG
Definition
statin and aspirin for all unless CI
GTN for acute attacks
beta blocker or calcium channel blocker
if unsuccessful: you can swap one for another or use both
3rd line: add one of the following: long acting nitrate, nicorandil, ivabradine, ralonizine (p should be awaiting PCI or CABG if on 3 drugs)
Term
if using calcium channel blocker alone for angina you can use a rate limiting one but if you use it in combo with beta blocker which ones should you use?
Definition
nifedipine
amlodipine
felodipine.
Term
how to manage nitrate tolerance?
Definition
take the second dose 8hours after the first rather than 12 hours.
this allows blood nitrate levels to fall for 4 hours and maintain effectiveness.
Term
nicorandil cause ulceration where?
Definition
anal ulceration
Term
summary mx of angina
Definition
modify risk factors
medication
PCI and surgery and cardiac rehab afterwards
Term
S1 metallic sounding. which valve is replaced?
Definition
mitral valve

if S2 is metallic sounding then aortic valve replaced.
Term
risks for varicose veins?
Definition
prolonged standing
pregnancy
obesity
COCP
FHx
Term
mx for varicose veins?
Definition
education: avoid prolonged standing, compression socks and weightless

injection sclerotherapy: injected into multiple sites at varicosities

laser coagulation

surgical stripping
Term
clinical features of varicose veins
Definition
symptoms: psychosocial from appearance, restless legs
signs: varicose eczema, heamosiderin, atrophy blanche, lipodermatosclerosis.
Term
6 P of acute limb ischemia?
Definition
pale
painful
pulseless
perishingly cold
paralysis
paraesthesia
Term
ABPI results
Definition
normal 0.9 -1.2

>1.2 falsely raised due to hardening of arteries
<0 .5 severe ischemia
<0.3 critical ischemia
Term
ix in PAD?
Definition
ABPI
duplex USS
MR/CT angiography
catheter aniography
bloods: lipids, fasting glucose, rule out anemia
Term
mx for PAD
Definition
education and modify risk factors: smoking, diet, exercise, diabetes, weight
supervised exercise regime
clopidogrel and statin
naftidrofuryl oxalate

surgery
revascularisation: angioplasty or bypass
amputation
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