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law and society final
me-ow.
135
Criminology
Undergraduate 3
04/30/2012

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Term
Where do lawyers practice?
Definition
private practice
government
private employment
judiciary
Term
The law is a learned profession: true/false?
Definition
true
Term
What is professionalization?
Definition
An attempt to translate one type of resources into another

Specialized knowledge and skills that becomes social and economic reward
Term
What is market control?
Definition
the successful assertion of unchallenged authority over some area of knowledge and its professional instrumentation
- Until the body of knowledge became too much for the ordinary person to handle, there was no need for a legal profession
Term
To become a profession what must a discipline do?
Definition
Become a full-time occupation
Have established training schools
- University affiliation of training schools
Local professional associations must started
National professional associations evolved
State licensing laws must exist
Formal codes of ethics must be established
Term
How do professionals answer ethical questions?
Definition
On their own
Term
Generally, professionals want what two things?
Definition
To be changed and take on the attributes of the profession

To keep previous selves intact
- Profession as an addition to their lives
Term
Lawyers in primitive societies
Definition
did not exist

- judges and courts were temporary
Term
The development of the legal profession has been intimately connected with what?
Definition
The rise of legal systems
Term
In the 1200's what profession emerged?
Definition
Advocate: a regulated group of law practitioners with some formal training.
Term
Where were the first lawyers trained?
Definition
By judges in the courtroom.

Then training moved out of the courtroom to the inn's of the court (england)
- Members of the Inns became organized, and monopolized the training of lawyers
Term
The american legal profession: pre-revolution
Definition
- Law was practiced by the upper class
- Wealthy sent their sons to the Inns of Courts
- Lawyers were unpopular
Term
The american legal profession during the revolution
Definition
Many lawyers emigrated to England
Term
The american legal profession post-revolution
Definition
Legal profession became more egalitarian
Term
First law schools established 1770's-1780's
Definition
- Grew out of a specialized law office offering an apprenticeship program
- Fourteen month program – no diploma
- Taught by lecture method
- Lax oral exam was maybe required
Term
In 1870 the teaching of law began with what method?
Definition
The case method
Term
Law school standards changed
Definition
- Admission standards tightened
- The length of time required to graduate was increased
- Oral examinations exchanged for comprehensive written exams
-College degree was required for admission (1876)
Term
What are law schools to the legal profession?
Definition
The gatekeepers
Term
In almost every state, what is required for admission to the bar?
Definition
A law school education

Seven states have provisions for ‘reading law programs’
- Like apprenticeship programs
- The ABA opposes these programs and restricts practice of these lawyers to their home state
Term
Enrollment in 1963/4 compared to enrollment in 2003/4
Definition
63/4- 49,552
03/4- 145,088
Term
Who are law students?
Definition
Historically dominated by students who are from better educated, more affluent, white families (1970's)
Term
The socratic method (1870 Langdell)
Definition
Law was a general science and its principles could be experimentally induced from the examination of case materials

Casebooks became textbooks
Term
The socratic method generally involves an intensive interrogation by the teacher of individual students concerning what?
Definition
The facts and principles presumed to be operative in a particular case
Term
What is the socratic method's twofold objective?
Definition
Informational: Instruction in the rules of law

To help students “think like a lawyer”
- Not only trains students to account for the factual details, but also the legal issues at the core of the dispute
- Allows students to make intelligent predictions of what a court would do
Term
What are some strengths of the socratic method?
Definition
Large class sizes are possible

Requires a student to prepare for class and learn the material

Focuses the student’s attention on subtleties and provides a good background for logical reasoning
Term
What are some criticisms of the socratic method?
Definition
- Class environment considered a hostile environment
- Creates an intense emotional environment
- Students complain that the method is inconclusive, does not encourage creativeness, and is not intellectually stimulating
- Men seem to fair better than women
Term
What is the definition of professional socialization?
Definition
taking on professional attitudes and identity
Term
What does professional socialization teach students to do?
Definition
define problems within the framework of the current system
- Makes students intellectually independent
- Restrains them from looking for radically solutions
Term
Professional socialization indoctrinates students into what?
Definition
Indoctrinating students into the legal profession

- Questions that challenge the basis of the system are seldom raised
Term
Professional socialization moves students away/towards which views?
Definition
Moves students away from the view that law is about social change

Moves students toward the view that the law is solely a conflict resolution mechanism
Term
In response to criticisms what have law school programs done?
Definition
- Adopted more joint degree programs
- Included a “clinical” training portion
-- Learning how to “work like a lawyer”
-- Places students in real situations with criminal defense offices or poverty-related neighborhood legal aid offices
-- Helps students deal with clients, judges and juries
-- More expensive than traditional legal education
Term
What happened in 1750 regarding professional organizations?
Definition
Bar associations developed as social clubs

Gradually controlled the admission to practice

Courts also admitted people to the bar
Term
What happened to professional organizations post-revolution? (1800-1870)
Definition
Admission standards loosened

Bar associations crumbled

Local courts granted admission to practice
Term
What happened to professional organizations in the 1870's?
Definition
Lawyers’ Union developed
- Wanted to protect the boundaries of the profession
ABA formed in 1878
- Statewide boards were established
Term
Licensing
Definition
Response to need

Governs:
The quality of legal education, requirements for admittance to the bar, power of the bar association, etc.
Term
Professional ethics
Definition
Guidelines for dealing with clients, other lawyers, the court, and the public

Language is generally much stronger than the ethical guidelines for other professional associations
- Ethical questions that relate to the role of the attorney
-- Necessitated by the adversarial system
Term
What are the 4 principle subgroups in the legal profession?
(from biggest to smallest)
Definition
- Private practice
- Government
- Private industry
- Judiciary, education, etc.
Term
Significant roles of private practice
Definition
- Counseling
- Negotiating
- Drafting
- Litigating
- Investigating
- Researching
Term
Counseling in private practice
Definition
Course of action in anticipation of the court or agency
Term
Negotiating in private practice
Definition
Criminal and civil cases, plea bargaining
Term
Drafting in private practice
Definition
Writing and revising legal documents

Contracts, wills, deeds, leases
Term
Litigation in private practice
Definition
Few lawyers engage in trial work

Much litigation is uncontested

Debt, divorce, civil commitment, criminal charges
Term
Investigating in private practice
Definition
searching for the facts of a case
Term
Researching in private practice
Definition
Searching for precedents, adapting legal doctrine to specific cases, anticipating court or agency rulings
Term
What are the possibilities in private practice?
Definition
Solo practitioners

Big law firms

Partnerships, small law firms
Term
Solo practitioners are?
Definition
generalists or "jack of all trades"
Term
What do solo practitioners deal with?
Definition
- collections
- personal injury cases
- rent cases
- evictions
Term
Studies show that solo practitioners are most likely to violate what?
Definition
Ethical norms

- Soliciting kickbacks, making/arranging police payoffs
- Function of the type of case and individuality of the client
Term
What kind of status does a solo practitioner have in terms of professions?
Definition
A lower status
Term
What are the biggest determinants of whether a lawyer becomes a solo practitioner or joins a law firm?
Definition
Social background combined with the quality of the law school
Term
What are big law firms referred to as?
Definition
Wall street firms
Term
Who are big law firms dominated by and what kind of clients do they favor?
Definition
Dominated by white men (slowly changing)

Favor corporate clients
Term
What is the hierarchical organization of a big law firm?
Definition
Associates -fixed salary

Junior partners

Full partner
Term
Big law firms are recruiting centers for what?
Definition
High level government service
- Looked upon as post graduate school training
Term
Most lawyers don’t change from big firm to private practice or vise versa, what is this separated by?
Definition
- Social origins of the lawyers
- Law schools attended
- Types of clients they serve
- Frequency and type of litigation
- Different circles of acquaintance
Term
The hierarchy of lawyers suggests a corresponding stratification of law into what two systems of justice?
Definition
Individuals and small businesses vs. corporate

Wealthy vs. poor
Term
What are ways to generate income in a private practice?
Definition
- Charging by the hour (large range)
- Estate, mergers, and probate
- Contingency fee basis
Term
Private practice: charging by the hour
Definition
Using a heavy pen

Double billing
Term
Private practice: estate, mergers, and probate
Definition
percentage of the worth of the transaction
Term
Private practice: contingency fee basis
Definition
an arrangement where the lawyer receives a percentage of any damages collected
Term
What are the pro's, con's, and remedies of contingency fee basis?
Definition
- Pros: allows individuals to retain the services of an attorney who could not otherwise afford it, helps lawyers screen out weak cases
- Cons: motivates lawyers to seek high damages
- Remedies: cap fees given to attorneys
Term
The majority of government lawyers serve where?
Definition
In the legal departments of federal and state agencies
Term
What are some departments of federal and state agencies?
Definition
- Justice and Treasury Departments
- City Departments: Zoning, planning, etc.
- Public Defenders and Prosecutors
-- Federal prosecutor, US attorneys, and assistants: appointed by the President
-- State prosecutors: elected by each county
Term
Where does a small portion of the government lawyers work?
Definition
In high executive positions, elected politicians
Term
How is taking positions in government a strategy for upward mobility?
Definition
- Segue into prestigious private practice
- Gain valuable experience
- Most are recent law school graduates
- Limitations on top salaries discourage some from continuing
Term
What are private industry lawyers?
Definition
Salaried employees of private businesses
- Industrial corporations, insurance companies, banks
Term
How do private industry lawyers increase their growth?
Definition
The growth of corporations

Increasing complexity of business

Problems with government regulation
Term
Private industry lawyers generally don't deal what what?
Definition
litigation

- Most tend to stay in private employment – some mobility between government and private employment
Term
What percentages of lawyers are in each field?
Definition
Private practice: 74%
Government: 12%
Private industry: 12%
Judiciary, education, etc: 2%
Term
Judiciary and education lawyers
Definition
- Judges and educators
- Very small proportion of lawyers
- Drawn from the practicing bar, researchers, government service, and teaching
Term
Juries: a history
Definition
Trial by ordeal

Origin of the jury can be traced back to the old Anglo-Saxon law in England
Term
Juries originally made accusations on behalf of what?
Definition
The crown
Term
What led to the opening for a jury to take part in a trial by ordeal?
Definition
The Church forbade the clergy from taking part in trial by ordeal
Term
What did juries eventually evolve into?
Definition
Adjudicators

- Transformation coupled with the Enlightenment philosophy
Term
Juries came to america with british settlers (1607)
Definition
Referred to in three of the first ten amendments

80% of all jury trials take place in the US
Term
The jury was included in the Declaration and Bill of Rights as a protection against what?
Definition
Arbitrary rule
Term
What did the First Continental Congress say about trials before judges?
Definition
objected to trials before judges that were dependent upon the Crown for their salaries
Term
What does the Constitution and Bill of Rights guarantee?
Definition
The right to a trial by an impartial jury of one’s peers

- States adopted these standards
Term
What is the guarantee of a jury trial?
Definition
A protection from oppression by the government

A reflection of our beliefs about the exercise of official power
Term
Constitution provides the right to a trial by jury for all criminal cases and civil cases involving what?
Definition
More than $20
Term
Juries render verdicts in how many cases?
Definition
Fewer than 10%

- ¼ to ½ of all cases that go before a jury are settled out of court
Term
How many people are called for jury duty annually?
Definition
3 million

- less than 60% serve
Term
In criminal cases, who gets to decide whether the case will be heard by a jury or a judge?
Definition
the defendant usually gets to decide
Term
Juries are ALWAYS used in which cases?
Definition
Death penalty cases
- Unanimous decision of a jury of 12
- Sentencing in Florida
Term
Jurors are used predominantly in which courts?
Definition
Trial courts
Term
Functions of juries: issues of fact
Definition
Interpreting and deciding between competing and conflicting interpretations of events

Referee in an adversary contest
Term
Functions of juries: issues of law
Definition
Legitimizing behavior under the law
Term
Functions of juries: injects community sentiment
Definition
Acts as a check on our justice system
Term
de Tocqueville framed trial by jury in which two ways?
Definition
Judicial

Political institution
Term
Political institution
Definition
Places the direction of society in the hands of the governed
- Raises citizens to the “bench of judges”
- The execution of the laws is entrusted to common citizens
Further evidenced by the jury’s involvement in civil justice
- Raises the visibility of the jury
- Teaches people to practice equity
Term
Jury nullification definition
Definition
The right of juries to nullify or refuse to apply law in criminal cases despite facts that leave no reasonable doubt that the law was violated.
Term
Jury nullification: Zenger case (1735)
Definition
Jurors have the right beyond all dispute to determine both the law and the facts, and where they do not doubt of the law, they ought to do so
Term
History of jury nullification
Definition
Navigational acts

Jury nullification became an integral part of the justice system
- Juries are called to evaluate both questions of fact and of law
Term
Why do we give jurors the right to nullify?
Definition
- Exercise of discretion in the administration of law and justice
- Check on prosecutorial indiscretion
- The “Great Corrective” in the administration of law
-- Gives the judicial system a legitimacy it would not otherwise posses
Term
"Man (or woman) in the jury box" formation of public policy

* “The execution of the law is more important than the making of them” –Jefferson
Definition
- One of the most significant principles of a democracy
- Embodiment of the conscience of the community
-- Informs us about the values of a society
- Control over policymakers
- Involvement with the government
-- Legitimizes the government/law
Term
Are jurors told about their power to nullify?
Definition
No
Term
In some states jurors are specifically told what?
Definition
That they must follow the law whether they agree with it or not
Term
Why are juries not told about their right to nullify?
United States v. Dougherty et al.
Definition
Jury nullification co-exists with the legal practice of telling the jury they must follow the law

The way the jury operates may be radically changed by telling them of the option to nullify
Term
United States v. Dougherty et al.
Definition
- Encouraging anarchy
- Subtle/informal communication that conveys this right
- May put untoward strains on the jurors
- Must be so extreme of a disagreement that they feel it their duty to go against the law
Term
What happens when we tell a jury about the right to nullify?
Definition
jurors are more likely to acquit a sympathetic defendant
and less likely to acquit a culpable, dangerous defendant
Term
What are some abuses of nullification?
Definition
- Nullification must always be used to acquit
- Acquittal by bigoted juries of whites who committed crimes against blacks
- Partially fueled the civil rights movement
- Right to be tried by a jury selected without bias
Term
Discretion vs. Equality
Definition
- Discretion: the use of judgments about the circumstances of certain offenses that lead to appropriate variations in how the system responds to these offenses.
- Equality: The same consequences for all people who commit the same crime
Term
Discretion can be used at which stages of criminal prosecution?
Definition
ALL stages.
- Legal professionals have several courses of action available to them
Term
Discretion as judgement
Definition
- Opposite of routine
- Brings knowledge, skill and insight to bear in unpredictable ways
- Adapting rules to local circumstances
Term
Discretion as choice
Definition
Making personal contributions or judgment calls

Following your conscious
Term
Discretion as discernment
Definition
- Not just about making “safe” choices
- Making good virtuous choices
- Tolerance, empathy
Term
Discretion as liberty
Definition
Permission to act as a free and equal agent
Term
Discretion as license
Definition
The opposite of standard expectations

Privilege to go against the rules
Term
Is discretion doing as you please?
Definition
NO
- Bounded by norms
Term
Police discretion: law enforcement agencies principle functions
Definition
- law enforcement
- maintenance of order
- community service
Term
What are the five (informal) types of Public Law Enforcement Systems?
Definition
- Federal Government
- State Police & criminal investigation agencies of the 50 States
- Sheriffs in more than 3000 counties
- City Police officers
- Village/Boroughs/Town police officers
Term
Private police/security
Definition
Cost almost more than 3 times public police
Term
Most police departments are characterized by what?
Definition
a formal and highly complex division of labor
Term
Most police departments rely on what?
Definition
- Rules and regulations
- High degree of cohesion and solidarity
- Authoritarian character
- Code of silence
Term
Most police departments are built on what?
Definition
- Military-like organization
- A subordinating chain of command

Functional divisions follow the kinds of activities they handle
- ex. traffic patrol, investigative work, crowd control, uniformed patrol, etc.
Term
Use of police discretion
Definition
Use of arrest and alternative uses of arrest
- Control and harass, Street Sweeps, ex. demonstrators
Decision not to arrest
Deciding on the level of priority to give to each of their functions, ex. Investigations, complaints, etc.
Situational: whether to use force
The option to enforce, interrogate, confront, etc.
Term
Why would police choose not to arrest?
Definition
- Police believe the community wants lenient or lax enforcement
- Police believe other duties are more urgent or important
- Not arresting may serve another need, ex. Informants, backup
Term
What influences whether a police officer is likely to excersize discretion?
Definition
Offender variables
- Adults vs. juveniles, race, gender, mental health
Situation variables
- Criminal vs. other matters, presence of weapons, type of property, initiator, others present
System variables
- Court availability, quotas, community resources
Term
Policing styles
Definition
Watchman
Legalistic
Service
- Elements of all three can be found in any agency
- Overall, emphasis tends to be on one style
Term
Watchman style
Definition
Emphasizes responsibility for maintaining public order
Peace officer
- Great amount of discretion
- Handles many violations informally
Often characterized by corruption, under enforcement, and low arrest rates
Largest amount of discretion used
Term
Legalistic style
Definition
Opposite of Watchman style
Treats all situations as if they were serious infractions of the law
High rate of traffic tickets, arrests, etc.
Technically efficient
Complaints of harassment and police brutality
Least amount of discretion used
Term
Service style
Definition
Combines law enforcement and maintenance of order
Emphasizes community relations
Fewer arrests for minor infractions
Less arbitrary than watchman style, more attuned to the public than the legalistic style.
May include a community policing element
Focuses attention on the problems that lie behind incidents rather than just the incidents
More expensive and labor intensive
Moderate amount of discretion used
Term
Plea bargaining
Definition
negotiations between the prosecutor and defendant’s lawyer; may involve ‘trading’ with the defendant for admission of a lesser crime
- 10% of cases that are filed go to trial
Term
Who plea bargain?
Definition
- Caseloads, case weaknesses, desire for a more lenient sentence
- Plea bargaining is a “cheap” conviction
- Criminal justice is becoming administrative vs. adversarial
Term
Hate crimes must start at what level?
Definition
The policing level and be supported through prosecution
Term
Juvenile vs. Adult court
Definition
The majority of juveniles waived to adult court are black, although they are not the majority who are committing crimes
Term
Who are judges?
Definition
Traditionally middle or upper class
History of Party identification
Almost all started as lawyers
Term
How do judges become judges?
Definition
Federal Judges: nominated by the president, confirmed by the senate

State and local judges: variety of methods (election, appointed, combination)
Term
A judge..
Definition
- Interprets the rules that govern the proceeding
- Controls the flow of litigation in the courtroom
- Has discretionary power in proceedings
Term
How do judges regulate court proceedings?
Definition
Discretion to allow evidence
Bifurcation
Instruction
Special verdicts
Regulates the jury
May sentence upon a guilty verdict
Term
Judicial sentencing
Definition
varies from state to state
Term
What plays a role in judicial sentencing?
Definition
Precedents
Prosecution recommendation
Victim Impact Statements
Race, sex, age, socioeconomic and criminal background of the defendant
New laws
- Three strikes, mandatory minimums
- Sentencing reform act (1987)
-- Ranked crimes, aggravating and mitigating circumstances
Term
The queen v. dudley and stephens
Definition
Dudley and Stephens pleaded Not guilty by reason of self defense: they had to eat the boy in order to stay alive.
Coleridge decided that self defense doesn’t fly and finds them guilty.
Says they should have done something else in order to pick who was the one to die.
To help Dudley and Stephens to escape the death penalty Coleridge appealed to the queen asking her to commute the sentence to 6 months.
Term
Exploding prison populations are not the result of an increase in crime, but a result of what?
Definition
public policy changes
Term
The unwanted effects of the three-strikes laws and mandatory minimums
Definition
The laws were promoted based on protecting the public from violent, serious offenders
Instead, they have confined higher rates of non-violent offenders
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