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| the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. |
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| the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). |
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| a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish. |
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| an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind. |
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| an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. |
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| The process of "looking inward" and examining one's self and one's own actions in order to gain insight. This was a central component to the early days of psychology during the Structuralist period. |
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| all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population.) |
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The scientific method is a systematic, step-by-step procedure psychologists use when conducting research. By following these specific steps, psychologists seek cause and effect relationships which means that they can be certain (at least have a high level of confidence) that one variable causes an effect on another variable and that the results of the study are caused by the variable being studied and not some other, outside (extraneous) variables.
The steps to the scientific method include describing the topic of study, making predictions (hypotheses), select a method for the study, controlling external variables, collecting data (running the study), analyzing & explaining the findings, and reporting & sharing the findings (usually via publication or lecturing). There are variations but these are the basic steps in the scientific method. |
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| the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. |
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| the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. |
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| an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. |
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| a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors. |
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| During many experiments, researchers often include treatment groups (the groups that are given the treatment/IV) and a control group, which is identical to the treatment group in every single way except that the control group does not get the treatment/IV. |
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| a testable prediction, often implied by a theory. |
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| observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. |
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| a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them. |
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| an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations. |
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| The correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to 1. |
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| a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. |
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| a group of subjects who are subjected to the independent or experimental variable in an experiment. The experimental group is matched in all respects with control group, which is treated in the same manner as the experimental group except for the application of the experimental variable. |
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| assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups. |
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| the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores. |
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| is a continuous probability distribution that has a bell-shaped probability density function, known as the Gaussian function or informally the bell curve. |
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| neither the individuals nor the researchers know who belongs to the control group and the experimental group. Only after all the data have been recorded (and in some cases, analyzed) do the researchers learn which individuals are which. |
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| the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it. |
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| the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution |
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| a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. |
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| Procedures by which GENERALISATIONS can be made from findings on representative SAMPLES to the larger groups from which they are drawn. |
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| Latin for “I shall please”.experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent. |
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| placebo An inactive substance disguised as an active one, e.g. a sugar pill given to a CONTROL GROUP in a drug EXPERIMENT or to a patient in hospital who would not benefit from an active drug but needs to feel that he is receiving treatment. |
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| the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. |
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| Is a legal condition whereby a person can be said to have given consent based upon an appreciation and understanding of the facts, implications and future consequences of an action. In order to give informed consent, the individual concerned must have adequate reasoning faculties and be in possession of all relevant facts at the time consent is given. Impairments to reasoning and judgement which would make it impossible for someone to give informed consent include such factors as severe mental retardation, severe mental illness, intoxication, severe sleep deprivation, Alzheimer's disease, or being in a coma. |
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| Repeating an EXPERIMENT over again in exactly the same way (though perhaps in a different place with different subjects. |
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| The "tail" or "output" end of a neuron. Axonic end-fibers release neural transmitters into the synapse which stimulate the next neuron in line. |
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| Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) |
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| the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. |
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| the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft. |
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| the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. |
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| the part of the peripheral nervous system, which controls the glands, and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. |
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| the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein. |
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| a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion. |
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| a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. |
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| chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse. |
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| Sympathetic Nervous System |
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| the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. |
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| a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. The action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane. |
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| the “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance. |
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| chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another. |
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| a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus. |
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| Parasympathetic Nervous System |
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| the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. |
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| a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level. |
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| threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes. |
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| the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them. |
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| a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next. |
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| the endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. |
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| the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. |
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| the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system. |
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| the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing. |
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| neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system. |
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| the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments. |
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| cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons |
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| Positron Emission Tomography (PET scan) |
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| a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. |
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| Electroencephalogram (EEG) |
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| an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. |
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| “morphine within”—natural, opiate like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. |
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| Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) |
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| a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain. |
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| the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field. |
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| the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position. |
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| the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear. |
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| the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied. |
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| two lima bean sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion. |
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| a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage. |
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| central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs. |
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| a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal. |
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| the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations |
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| neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands. |
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| areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking. |
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| twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms. |
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| CT (Computed Tomography) Scan |
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| DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) |
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| a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes. |
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| twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment. |
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| Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) |
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| a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. MRI scans show brain anatomy; fMRI scans show brain function. |
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| a neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction. |
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| an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. |
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| the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived. |
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| in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts. |
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| a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information. |
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| Accommodation (Piagetian) |
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| adapting one’s current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information. |
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| interpreting one’s new experience in terms of one’s existing schemas. |
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| an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation. |
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| Concrete Operational Stage |
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| in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events. |
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| the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing. |
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| an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development. |
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| in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic. |
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| in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities. |
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| the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects. |
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| in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty in taking another’s point of view. |
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| the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth. |
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| the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month. |
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| research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period. |
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| a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another. |
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| a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span. |
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| one’s sense of being male or female. |
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| biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience. |
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| the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo. |
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| a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning. |
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| Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) |
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| physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions. |
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| the first menstrual period. |
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| the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines. |
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| in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female. |
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| the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life. |
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| agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm. |
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| the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence. |
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| the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment. |
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| the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time. |
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| the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information. |
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| retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations. |
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| the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference. (Also called just noticeable difference or jnd.) |
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| the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. |
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| retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond. |
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| the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green. |
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| the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster. |
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| (Also known as Young-Helmholtz theory)(Three-color) the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color. |
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| a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses. |
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| perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change. |
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| depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone. |
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| conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret. |
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| the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount). |
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| depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes. |
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| in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated. |
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| a binocular cue for perceiving depth: By comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object. |
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| a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency. |
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| analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information. |
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| nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement. |
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| the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain. |
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| the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them. |
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| diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. |
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| a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (“signal”) amid background stimulation (“noise”). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue. |
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| information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. |
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| Accommodation (perceptual) |
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Definition
| the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina. |
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| in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. |
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| decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. |
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| the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina. |
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| the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain. |
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| the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters. |
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| the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance. |
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| the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are located there. |
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| a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening. |
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| a binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object. The greater the inward strain, the closer the object. |
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| the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth. |
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| a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur. |
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| rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active. |
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| drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. |
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| our awareness of ourselves and our environment. |
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| recurring problems in falling or staying asleep. |
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| a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood. |
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| psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input. |
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| a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times. |
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| the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect. |
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| drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions. |
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| according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content). Freud believed that a dream’s latent content functions as a safety valve. |
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| according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content). |
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| a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings. |
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| opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety. |
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| Activation Synthesis Hypothesis |
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| a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued. |
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| a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension. |
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| a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning. |
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| Conditioned Response (CR) |
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Definition
| in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS). |
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| Conditioned Stimulus (CS) |
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Definition
| in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response. |
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| learning by observing others. |
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| a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. |
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| an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. |
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| the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. |
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| Unconditioned Response (UCR) |
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| in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. |
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| Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) |
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| in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response. |
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| increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.) |
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| increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. |
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| an event that decreases the behavior that it follows. |
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| Extinction (Classical Conditioning) |
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| the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. |
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| the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events. |
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| an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. |
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| in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. |
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| Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. |
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| Variable Interval Schedule |
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| in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. |
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| in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. |
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| in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. |
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| reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. |
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| reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. |
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| Extinction (Operant Conditioning) |
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Definition
| the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. |
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| learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. |
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| a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response. |
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| a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it. |
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| Schedule of Reinforcement |
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| the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. |
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| a newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory. |
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| organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. |
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| retention independent of conscious recollection. |
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| the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. |
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| the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. |
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| the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning. |
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| memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” |
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| the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. |
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| a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. |
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| memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. |
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| the process of getting information out of memory storage. |
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| the retention of encoded information over time. |
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| our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list. |
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| the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response. |
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| a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test. |
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| Long Term Potentiation (LTP) |
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| an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory. |
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| a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. |
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| Encoding Specificity Principle |
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| a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms. |
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| a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics. |
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| the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving. |
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| a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin). |
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| a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. |
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| in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix). |
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| in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit. |
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| the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language. |
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| a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions |
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| estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common. |
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| a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past. |
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| Representativeness Heuristic |
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| heuristic judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information. |
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| our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning. |
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| the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning. |
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| a tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions. |
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| all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. |
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| early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—“go car”—using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting auxiliary words. |
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| the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting. |
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| the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. |
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Term
| Intelligence Quotient (IQ) |
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Definition
| defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ = (ma/ca) x 100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100. |
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| mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. |
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| the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas. |
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| Crystallized Intelligence |
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Definition
| one’s accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age. |
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| one’s ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood. |
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| Frustration Aggression Hypothesis |
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