Term
Ten Good Reasons to
Address Homophobia in Sport |
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Definition
Improve team and coach
performance
Decrease suicide rates
Decrease incidence of
hate crimes and
harassment
Challenge destructive
stereotypes
Reduce fear, ignorance
and discrimination
Create safe
environments
Improve team chemistry
and learning
environment
Remove athletic
participation barrier
Redefine masculinity
Make sport a safe place
for future generations |
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Term
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Definition
| -Gender (identity/expression. - ethinicity - sexual identification -age, class, race, religion, sex, ability |
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Term
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Definition
Characterized by vastly unequal distributions of power,
authority, prestige, resources between women and men and
between social classes and racial groups
It’s masculine patterns appear to be natural because of it’s
historical persistence
People such as athletic directors, men’s basketball and
football coaches, and male athletes in high-status sports are
at the center of this gender regime and are privileged in their
positions |
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Term
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Definition
Constantly re-created by the day to day interactions of people
Do not determine what people do, but set the conditions and
parameters in which people act
The interactions that recreate the pattern of unequal gender relations
or “state of play” make up the gender regime of sport, the outcome
of which is a dominant form of heterosexual masculinity that is both
a product and an advocate of men’s violence
This masculinity is marked by a sense of entitlement to athletic
opportunities, control of locker rooms, prestige, and resources |
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Term
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Definition
Trivial – to have little value or importance (Cambridge
dictionary)
Trivialize – the make something of less importance
than is really is (Cambridge dictionary) |
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Term
| Media consumption has implications for: |
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Definition
Aggression, violence, reckless behavior
Lower self esteem if masculinity as defined by media is
not exhibited
Can obtain desired image through purchase of certain
goods
Treatment of women as sexualized/trivialized objects |
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Term
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Definition
Assumption of entitlement to fair treatment on
basis of individual merits
Identification with decision-makers, power
holders, information
Shared understanding of institutional norms,
values, processes, structures
Assumption of safety and acceptance
Access to institutional services that support
success |
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Term
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Definition
Unasked for
Invisible
Can you think of examples?
Unearned
Available to members of “majority” group
members in an organization
Often mistaken for individual merit by “majority”
group members
“majority” group = “advantaged”/”status” group in
society |
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Term
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Definition
Experience discrimination
Suffer social disadvantages because of
discrimination
Possess a strong self-consciousness based
on their shared experiences of discriminatory
treatment |
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Term
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Definition
“Race” is a primitive but powerful classification system
that has been used around the world
“Race” is based on a two-category classification system
premised on the rule of hypo-descent or the “one-drop
rule”
The “one-drop rule” was developed by white men to
insure the “purity” of the “white race” and property
control by white men
Mixed-race people challenge the validity of this socially
influential way of defining race |
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Term
| Racial ideology in history |
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Definition
Racial classification systems were developed as white
Europeans explored and colonized the globe and
found that there were physical differences between
people
These systems were used to justify colonization,
conversion, and even slavery and genocide
According to these systems, white skin was the standard,
and dark skin was associated with intellectual inferiority
and slowed development |
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Term
| Sport participation in Latinos |
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Definition
The experiences of Latino and Latina athletes
have been ignored until recently
Stereotypes about physical abilities have
influenced perceptions of Latino athletes
Latinos now make up over 25% of Major League
Baseball players
Latinos often confront discrimination in school
sports
Latinas have been overlooked due to faulty
generalizations about gender and culture |
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Term
The Dynamics of Racial &
Ethnic Relations in Sports |
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Definition
Race and ethnicity remain significant in sports
today
Today’s challenges are not the ones faced in the
past
It is a mistake to think that racial and ethnic
issues disappear when desegregation occurs
The challenge of dealing with inter-group
relations never disappears – it changes in terms
of the issues that must be confronted |
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Term
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Definition
• Definition - the process by which people monitor and
control how they are perceived by other people.
• Grounded in an interactionist perspective
• Impressions are important
• Is self-presentation deceptive?
• convey favorable images of self
• thus engage in selective presentation |
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Term
The benefits of being
attractive…. |
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Definition
Attractive children are more popular
Attractive applicants have a better chance of getting jobs, and of
receiving higher salaries.
In court, attractive people are found guilty less often.
We also believe in the 'what is beautiful is good' stereotype. The
good fairy/princess is always beautiful; the wicked stepmother is
always ugly - we moralize attractivenes |
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Term
The influence of Selfpresentation
on physical activity |
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Definition
• Motivation to participate or not
• Social identity
• Demotivating influence |
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Term
Two - Activity Choice and
Context |
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Definition
• Activity Choice
• Activity Context |
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Term
Three - Quality of
Athletic/Exercise
Participation |
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Definition
Exertion - SOCIAL FACILITATION
Effort – SOCIAL LOAFING
Excuses - SELF-HANDICAPPING |
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Term
Affective Response to
Physical Activity and
Sport |
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Definition
Social Anxiety
Social Physique Anxiety |
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Term
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Definition
The anxiety that occurs when we believe that
we are not creating the desired impression in
a social setting. |
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Term
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Definition
• Anxiety that results when a person perceives that
her/his physique is being negatively evaluated.
• High physique anxious people:
• avoid settings high in physique evaluation (more than less
physique anxious people)
• avoid activities which accentuate physique
• suffer depression related to their bodies
• may engage in weight loss practices which are harmful |
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Term
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Definition
• Eating Disorder
• Amenorrhea
• Osteoporosis |
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Term
| Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder (Bigorexia) |
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Definition
• “Preoccupation with the idea that one’s body is not
sufficiently lean and muscular. Characteristics
associated behaviors include long hours of lifting
weights and excessive attention to diet.”
• Preoccupation manifested in the following ways:
• Giving up important social, occupational, or recreational
activities due to compulsive need to maintain workout & diet
• Avoidance of situations where his/her body is exposed or
endures with marked distress or intense anxiety
• Preoccupation about body size/musculature inadequacy
• Primary focus on being too small rather than too big |
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Term
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Definition
sexual divisions present within
an organization’s processes, practices, images,
ideologies, and distributions of power. |
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Term
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Definition
the uniqeness of every person based
on style, creative abilities, and actions |
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Term
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Definition
social ideology that is expressed as
an aggressive desire to be on top of or seen as
better than others. |
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Term
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Definition
Three trends are pulling the gender regime
in sport simultaneously. They include:
The Ghettoization Model
The Just Do It Model
The Social Justice Model |
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Term
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Definition
In the 1920s there was an expressed fear of a growing “manishness”
among physically active women.
Competitive women’s sports was able to survive in highly marginalized
athletic ghettos;
Women’s schools and universities
Public sports organizations (both amateur and professional)
Ability to survive based on “adapted model” of sports
Les strenuous activity through less movement, bodily contact and aggression
“concept of womanhood characterized by refinement, dignity, and self-control”
i.e. women’s basketball, softball
Market driven promotion of women athletes sex appeal
“sexualized beauty queens”
The unmodified “athlete” remains a male figure
Ghettoization (playing in the margins) allows women’s sports to sidestep a
patriarchal backlash
Relative autonomy and protection |
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Term
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Definition
Approaches sex equity as though the institutional “center” is the place to be
and women deserve to be there just as men do.
The “center” is a place of athletes and individualism
Based on fairness (power, status, and resources should not be based on gender, but
rather skill)
Based on two general limitations: 1)Lack of institutional analysis
2)Increasing reliance on large corporations to provide financial and cultural
support to promote a type of equity for females in sport.
Just Do It Model assumes that if doors are opened, women can go “from
the margin to the center” or can break oppressive barriers in sport.
Corporate Individualism is embraced to help push equity in sports.
Can have negative affects such as celebrating only the elite female athletes and
inadvertently causing young females to endure physical malpractice to be highly
competitive.
Although the just do it model encourages women to shift towards the
center, it may have a tendency to make women share men’s institutional
power, and re-create the same oppressive social relations with other
groups may it be racial-ethno based or class based. |
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Term
| Sex Segregation vs. Integration |
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Definition
True equal opportunity – allowing females to play with males in integrated
sports – why resist?
“defending men’s historical ‘rights’ to control resources”
-“Ability to provide ideological “proof” of natural physical superiority of all men
over all women”
“Oppositional binary” – that men and women are categorically different
(and thus unequal)
“Continuum of difference” – some women are taller, faster, stronger and
better athletes than some men and vice versa
Limitations of views
Women's and men's bodies exist on continuum
Most popular sports are organized around most extreme possibilities of men's’
bodies (i.e. height in basketball, balance in gymnastics)
Celebration of “sport” that entails physical power and aggression |
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Term
| vidualism vs. Individuality |
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Definition
Social forms transform as pulled closer to the institutional center
Individuality – uniqueness of every person, based on personal style, creative
abilities, and actions
Conducive to the community
Individualism – social ideology that is expressed as an aggressive desire to be
on top of or to be seen as better than others.
Destructive to the community
Consumer / institutional life replaces individuality with distortion of
individualism
Corrupt power of the center
Proximity to center creates unhealthy aspects of sport
Playing sports vs. Highly involved athletes
Playing sports is beneficial while athletes exposed to dangerous risks
Playing sports is on the margin and encourages individuality
Athletes are at the center and pulled into individualism |
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Term
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Definition
Fundamentally challenge / alter the values or power relations at the center
Fights against oppressive / unjust aspects of ghettoization
Recognizes that social critique and social oppositions can be made from the
margins
Asks the crucial question “Just do what?”
Institutional responses
Women’s Sports Foundation
Activism around sexual harassment, lesbian and homophobia issues
Women’s National Basketball Association
Adapted rules, gender marked, less pay and media exposure
Community relations and marketing strategy
i.e. Breast cancer awareness night, community organizations |
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Term
| Instability of the center |
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Definition
1. problems –particularly off-field violence –generated by men’s
athletic culture
2. destabilizing influence of institutions such as schools, universities
and the law which often have different goals and core value
systems from those at the center
3. continued challenges from the margins of sport by girls and
women pressing for equity and fairness. |
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Term
| The social control and deficit reduc:on dream |
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Definition
Most dominant discourse– sports can constrain and
construc:vely socialize young people
Corresponds with youth who have been framed as
“problems” or “threats”
Sports offers opportunity to escape bad
environments and increase chances of future
produc:vity in society (keep them off the street
dream).
Increase self‐esteem and “pull yourself up by your
bootstraps” mentality |
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Term
| Second dream: Social Opportunity and Privilege Promotion |
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Definition
Sport is used to expand opportunity and build leadership
and other necessary adult skills
Focus is on building up strengths rather than on reducing
deficits (as in dream 1).
Focus on taking advantage of already present privilege
Sports is seen as a microcosm of broader world – in which
personal work ethic, compe::on and confidence are
important
Sports prepares one for the world as well as opening
doors of opportunity to be successful |
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Term
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Definition
No focus on social jus:ce or community rebuilding
Focus is on policing youth (social control dream)
World is right as it is (social opportunity dream) |
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Term
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Definition
‐ Strategic planning
Males hold senior posi:ons and make the decisions
Dominant structure in sports organiza:ons
Focuses on top‐down direc:on
‐ Community development
Non‐direc:ve empowerment |
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Term
| Effect on the advancement of women |
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Definition
‐ Marginaliza:on by exis:ng management
Lack of advancement opportuni:es
Exclusion from decision making processes
Overall inconsidera:on of gender equity |
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Term
| Poten:al contribu:ons from women |
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Definition
‐ Capacity to balance tensions between
management and community development
‐ Provide focus and priori:es |
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Term
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Definition
The Reality
‐ Organiza:ons do not realize their established policies
created by males for males inherently limits contribu:ons
from women
‐ The execu:ve posi:ons are guarded from women by the
exis:ng male patronage
‐ Many sports organiza:ons will not accept gender inequity as
their problem
‐ Recognize that changes in one country may not work in other
countries due to cultural differences
‐ Sport currently is behind all other aspects of culture and
society in terms of gender equity |
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Term
The Media Image of the Female Athlete
Video Components |
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Definition
• Female athletics and athletes, because they demonstrate so clearly the physical
strength, power and capability of women, pose a threat to definitions of
masculinity that depend on difference from women, specifically definitions that
depend on the exclusion of women and stereotypically feminine values.
• While female athletics and athletes threaten to undermine the traditional equation
of sport and manhood, media coverage of women’s sport has worked to reinforce
traditional stereotypes of both femininity and masculinity. |
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Term
| Taking the Field: The Impact of Title IX |
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Definition
• Title IX changed the very culture of female athletics by putting to rest traditional
questions about the appropriateness of girls and women playing sports.
• As Mary Jo Kane puts it, “In one generation we’ve gone from girls hoping that
there is a team, to hoping that they make the team.”
• While Title IX has had the effect of increasing participation over the past three
decades and, over time, the level of competition in women’s sports, an entirely
separate issue concerns how these changes, and the nature of female athletics,
have been presented and represented in media. |
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Term
| Out of Uniform: The Media Backlash against Female Athletes |
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Definition
• Analysis of the major sports channels, and of sports coverage generally, reveal
that women’s sports are severely under-represented despite the growth in
women’s college and professional sports programs, and in the participation of
girls and young women in sports generally.
• This persistent tendency to sexualize, trivialize and marginalize physically strong,
athletic women has the effect of undermining the power of female athletes, and
works to contain the threat this power poses to traditional equations of manhood
and masculinity with sport.
• These inherent biases in media coverage of women’s sports reflect profound
cultural anxieties about changing definitions of femininity and masculinity. |
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Term
| Empowerment or Exploitation? |
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Definition
While media have continually represented women athletes in sexualized or other
trivializing ways that have little or nothing to do with their athletic ability or
accomplishments, the fact is that a number of women athletes have regularly and
willingly chosen to be represented in these ways.
• A number of female athletes have argued that such representations have less to do
with their disempowerment as athletes than their empowerment as individuals:
that they gain power by expressing their individuality as women, their femininity,
their sexuality, at the same time winning both publicity for their sport and
economic power through promotional deals.
• This focus on women athletes as hypersexual, or hyper-feminine, needs also to be
considered alongside the overall dearth of coverage of women’s sports, and the
relative absence of coverage of women athletes as athletes first. When valuable
ideals like individual empowerment and expression circulate within so limited a
frame, the risk is that women’s sports get devalued – even as the very gender
stereotypes that made Title IX necessary in the first place get valued. |
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Term
| Homophobia in Sport and Sports Media |
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Definition
• Because female athletes challenge traditional notions of femininity, because their
abilities are seen as traditionally and stereotypically “masculine,” female athletes
and women’s athletics must contend always with homophobia.
• Women’s sports organizations and women athletes have been forced to
consciously present themselves as heterosexual and as unthreatening to family
values in order to remain socially acceptable and economically viable.
• The consequent fear of media scrutiny in turn has led women’s sports promoters
to emphasize the wholesome, family-friendly nature of their teams; led female
athletes to clearly mark and market themselves as heterosexual, and led to lesbian
athletes to stay in the closet.
• This homophobic dynamic is especially paradoxical, and presents special
challenges to sports ownership, given the large lesbian fan base of women’s
professional sports. |
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Term
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Definition
Sports culture in the United States, because it is so inherently gendered, so
traditionally a masculine arena, is one of the most prominent places where gender
is defined and taught.
• While in the wider culture women’s increased power has challenged traditional
gender dichotomies, the world of sports media lags far behind.
• Sports media do cultural work, actively constructing for millions of boys and
young men what it means to be a man, to be masculine, and therefore what it
means to be a woman, to be feminine.
• As long as sports coverage and those who produce it rely on outmoded
stereotypes of femininity and masculinity, as long as they work to appease the
anxieties that always attend change, they will continue to perpetuate the myth that
female sports are somehow less exciting than male sports. |
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Term
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Definition
Labels are used to control women in sports
Hate drives the use of these labels
Fear makes these labels effective |
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Term
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Definition
Women in sport must appear “heterosexy”
Women must flaunt their femininity
Women are encouraged to discuss their “normal” life
Women must avoid being labeled |
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Term
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Definition
› Within sports institutions, regulates the ways
bodies may connect with each other. |
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Term
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Definition
- Cultural ideology
promotes an ideal of “normal” male behavior that
places some men in a position of dominance over
other men and all women. |
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Term
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Definition
The notion that some
male behaviors are disgraceful and those
displaying such behaviors are lower class that
can be denied power and prestige. |
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Term
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Definition
To characterize or brand as
disgraceful or embarrassing |
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Term
| Characteristics of the Media |
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Definition
The media connects us with information,
experiences, images, ideas, and people from around
the world.
The media at times gives us a “re-presented” version
of the truth based on the goals of the media and in
turn presents us with what the New York Times
called “sportainment.”
The decision makers in the media act as filters, and
present images and text that is consistent with the
current dominant ideologies in society.
The media in the US emphasizes on competition,
aggression, hard work, heroism, achievement,
playing with pain, teamwork, and competitive
outcomes. |
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Term
| Typical Goals of the Media |
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Definition
To Make Profits.
To Shape Values.
To Provide a public
service.
To Build their own
reputations.
To Express themselves
in a technical, artistic, or
personal way. |
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Term
| Sport Depends on the Media |
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Definition
Sports depend on the media for commercial success.
Commercial sports depend on the media to provide a
combination of coverage and news.
Media provides knowledge and discussions about sports, which
increases interest, and generates large revenues.
Commercial sports depend greatly on television for revenues in
the form of TV rights and licensing fees.
Billions of dollars of revenue for sports are generated each year
through television.
Athletes and CEO’s depend on increased revenues for higher
salaries.
The goal of television is to turn the world into an audience that
can be sold to sponsors |
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Term
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Definition
Sports are re-presented to audiences
through selected images and/or narratives |
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Term
| Homosexuality and the Media |
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Definition
Lesbian relationships are ignored for fear of
offending media audiences
Gay athletes are assumed not to exist
We live in a heterosexual dominated culture
so it is harder for an athlete to say they are
homosexual
Homosexuality is not seen as normal in the
media |
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Term
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Definition
a hatred of women
-a term that implicitly denies the sexuality
inherent in the athletic performance and the athletic body
upon which that performance is inscribed. |
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Term
Contextualism‐
Voyeurism |
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Definition
Contextualism‐ the philosophy that an action, utterance,
or expression can only be understood relative to that
context
Voyeurism‐ the sexual interest in or practice of spying on
people engaged in intimate behaviors, such as undressing,
sexual activity, or other activity usually considered to be of
a private nature |
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Term
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Definition
provided the basis for new
politics of resistance and critique of the way black
people were positioned as ‘other’, irrespective of their
different histories, traditions and identities |
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Term
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Definition
First wave of feminism didn’t use ‘difference’ but
they observed divisions between class, gender roles,
and rights
Second wave of feminism used the term to describe
inequalities and disadvantages that women
experience as compared to men
Third wave of feminism the term difference refers to
the differences between women, rather than
between two genders |
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Term
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Definition
Difference is based on experiences or
postmodernist thought
Experiences- seen as a way of challenging women’s
previous silence about their conditions and
confronting dominant males with knowledge and
comprehension
Postmodernist thought- “emphasizes fragmentation,
deconstruction, and the idea of multiple
selves” (Maynard) |
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Term
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Definition
Criticism of experience approach: “us” and “them”
connotation
Endless possibilities for diversity that cannot be
lumped together
Tends to emphasize differences between women
that they might have in common
“Detracts from our ability to consider relationships
between things and the possible consequences in
terms of domination and control” (Maynard) |
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