Theory of motivation

Drive-reduction theory

Clark Hull

Classical conditioning

(Respondent conditioning)

Ivan Pavlov

Tendency for stimuli similar to the CS (the bell) to elicit the CR (salivation). Ex. bells of a diff. pitch, chimes, etc.

** Evidence in phobias 

Presenting the CS (bell) without the UCS (food powder). 

** Generally unsuccessful

Neutral stimulus is paired with CS (bell) rather than a UCS (food powder). 

* Stage 1: CS (bell) -> UCS (food)

* Stage 2: New UCS (light) -> CS (bell)

After several trials, CR (salivation) to 2nd UCS. 

Two neutral stimuli paired together and then one of them paired with a UCS (food). 

* Stage 1: Neutral 1 (light) -> neutral 2 (bell)

* Stage 2: Neutral 2 (bell) -> UCS (food)

Test for neutral 1 (light) w/o any other stimulus

neutral elicits CR 

Contingency explanation of classical conditioning

Robert Rescorla

CS is a good signal for UCS AND provides nonredundant information about the occurrence of the UCS. 

Ex. Rats w/ hissing noise (CS), light (CS), and shock (UCS). Can pair hissing noise but not light. Light provides no info about shock.

Operant conditioning

(Instrumental conditioning)

Law of effect

E.L. Thorndike

Positive reinforcement

B.F. Skinner

Negative reinforcement

B.F. Skinner

The behavior removes something undesirable. 

Ex. Fastening your seatbelt (desirable behavior) will remove the buzzer reminder (undesirable thing) in your car

Organism gets a warning that an aversive stimulus will soon occur and appropriate response will allow organism to avoid it. 

Ex. Stop sign warns you before aversive stimulus (potential crash)

Stimulus condition that indicates the organism's behavior will have consequences. 

I.e., a stimulus will tell if a reward or punishment occurs, such as a light. 

Longer to extinguish behavior in which reinforcement was occasional or intermittent. 

Ex. gambling

Fixed-ratio 

(Partial reinforcement)

Receives reinforcement after a fixed number of responses

Ex. Food pellet after every five lever presses

Variable-ratio

(Partial reinforcement) 

Receive reinforcement after a varying number of responses

Ex. VR 5 schedule - Food pellet after, on average, every five lever presses

** Very resistant to extinction

** Elicits most rapid response rate

Fixed-interval

(Partial reinforcement)

Reinforced on 1st response after fixed period of time. 

Ex. FI-45 sec schedule, food pellet appears every 45 seconds. 

Variable-interval 

(Partial reinforcement)

Shaping

(Differential reinforcement)

Flooding

(Behavior therapy/modification)

Implosion

(Behavior therapy/modification)

Systematic desensitization

Joseph Wolpe

Uses hierarchy of anxiety-provoking situations coupled with use of relaxation techniques 

 * Starts with relaxation w/ low-anxiety, baby stepping up to using relaxation w/ high-anxiety

* Also called counter-conditioning

Stimulus that attracts the client becomes paired with an aversive UCS assoc. w/ punishment. 

** Used w/ alcohol, smoking, fetishes

Behavioral contract

(Contigency management) 

Negotiated agreement between two parties that explicitly state the change that is desired and indicates consequences of certain acts. 

* Mutual desired behaviors by parties in contract 

Time-out

(Contingency management) 

Tokens given for desirable behavior and taken away for undesirable behavior. Tokens can be exchanged for rewards and privileges. 

* Used in mental hospitals

Premack principle

(Contingency management) 

Using a more preferred activity to reinforce a less preferred activity.

Ex. Parents telling child they can play if they do their homework. 

Law of effect & puzzle box

E.L. Thorndike

Cat stuck in box jail, food just outside. Eventually finds its way out.

Thorndike argues it was only by trial-and-error learning.

Insight learning

Wolfgang Kohler

Used chimpanzees in play areas w/ food in sight. Chimps would find novel ways to solve problems after observing situation. 

* Evidence for insight 

Rats and cognitive maps

Edward Tolman

Different species have different inborn predispositions to learn different things in different ways.

* Affects both types of conditioning

Garcia effect

John Garcia

G1 - Rats w/ sweet water and shock

G2 - Rats w/ sweet water and drug

G3 - Rats w/ bright-noisy water & shock

G4 - Rats w/ bright-noisy water & drug

* Conditioning occurred between 2 and 3

* Preparedness - assoc. illness with ingestion and sights/sound w/ pain

Instinctual drift

Keller & Marion Breland

Instinctual ways of behaving are able to override behaviors learned through operant conditioning 

Ex. Raccoons w/ coins and crayfish

Fixed-action patterns (FAP)

Niko Tinbergen

A stereotyped behavior sequence that does not have to be learned by animal

Ex. Rolling an egg back to a nest, courtship rituals

Releaser 

Niko Tinbergen

Supernormal stimulus

Niko Tinbergen

A model more effective at triggering an FAP than the actual sign stimulus in nature

Ex. Painted red bellied models of male stickelbacks

Behaviors that prevent animals of one species from attempting to mate with animals of a closely related species. 

Ex. Species-specific calls

* Found only where closely related species share an environment

Waggle dance

Karl von Frisch

Natural selection

Charles Darwin

1: Genetic differences must exist

2: If a specific genetic variation increases chances of reproduction, it will tend to be passed down.

3:Over time, more members of species will have genetic variation that increases chance of reproduction 

Takes into account the number of offspring that live to be old enough to reproduce. 

* Altruism is problematic 

Animals act to increase inclusive fitness, not reproductive fitness. 

Takes into account # of offspring who live to reproduce & number of other relatives who live to reproductive age.

Sociobiology

E.O. Wilson